In March 2021, a 64-year-old man who was injured in a fall was brought to our emergency department. He had lost his balance and fallen while harvesting avocados from a tree. He reported severe right hip and right lateral chest pain and was unable to move his right hip. His vital signs were unremarkable. He held his right hip in flexion and abduction (Fig 1a). The limb was neurologically intact and good distal arterial pulses were present. Plain anteroposterior radiograph of the pelvis revealed an inferior dislocation of the femoral head (Fig 1b).

Computed tomography (CT) scan of the chest (not shown) revealed an ipsilateral nondisplaced rib (8-10) and scapular spine fractures. A CT scan of the pelvis (Fig 2) demonstrated an empty acetabulum with no associated fractures. Later, the patient was brought to the operating theatre and 0.5 mg/kg propofol and 0.5 μg/kg remifentanil administered intravenously for the first 90 s. Thereafter, further doses of both propofol 0.25 mg/kg and remifentanil 0.25 μg/kg were administered. After 3 to 4 minutes the patient was adequately sedated and pain-free.

The dislocation was reduced under sedation and fluoroscopy by manual traction in the line of deformity, initially followed by adduction of the femur, resulting in an uneventful reduction (Video 1). Fluoroscopy confirmed that the hip range of motion was safe after reduction; the hip was safe at 90° of flexion, 20° of adduction, 30° of abduction, and 30° of internal or external rotation.

After clinic follow-up the next day, the patient was discharged home and advised to remain on bed rest for 3 weeks, and to use a walker (with toe-touch weight-bearing) solely for going to the toilet.

To prevent heterotopic bone formation and thromboprophylaxis, 25-mg indomethacin orally 3 times daily and 0.4-mL enoxaparin sodium daily were prescribed for the first 2 weeks after surgery. The use of indomethacin for prophylaxis is well documented in the literature and its use to prevent heterotopic ossification following treatment for posterior hip dislocation with acetabular fractures has been reported by Mitsionis et al.1 Deep venous thrombosis has rarely been reported after an isolated hip dislocation.1 Nevertheless, indomethacin for prophylaxis was prescribed to our patient in view of the need for prolonged bed rest and his relatively advanced age.

At follow-up examination 3 weeks after reduction, the patient was able to bear weight with a mildly antalgic gait (Video 2). The observed antalgic gait prompted us to be more conservative so the patient was advised to avoid strenuous activity and to use crutches with partial weight-bearing. At the same visit, a post-reduction radiograph and CT scan was performed to rule out chip or flake fractures of the femoral head or acetabulum during reduction; if hip pain persists, a magnetic resonance imaging scan can be performed to look for evidence of a labral tear. No associated acetabular or femoral head fracture was observed (Fig 3). The patient will continue to be monitored for a year for possible aseptic necrosis and myositis ossificans.

There are two types of inferior hip dislocation: obturator and ischial. Parvaresh et al2 analysed acetabular development and concluded that between the ages of 12 and 16, the three ossification centres and triradiate cartilage are ossified in both sexes. It is realistic then to consider it an adult hip if the patient is >16 years.2 Few cases of inferior (ischial type) hip dislocation have been reported. We reviewed the English-language literature search and found only five reported cases of inferior hip dislocation in adult patients (age >16 years).3 4 5 6 7 Among them, our patient is the oldest case reported with uneventful reduction.

Traumatic hip dislocation can cause complications that include avascular necrosis (6%-27% for early closed reduction), post-traumatic osteoarthritis (17%-48%), heterotopic ossification (up to 32%),1 8 and sciatic nerve injury (approximately 10%).9 To avoid complications, early and uneventful reduction is critical. In our patient, reduction was achieved within 2 hours of initial presentation. Our patient may be the only case documented with radiographic imaging performed before and after the reduction (including CT) and video of the reduction manoeuvre and a clinical video of the patient (demonstrating the patient walking in the third week after the reduction).

Brogdon and Woolridge10 described the mechanism of ischial and obturator injury. In the ischial type, the person falls on the trunk with the hip flexed and lands on the flexed knee. The accumulated force from further flexion of the upper trunk and body weight may create the momentum to push the femoral head inferiorly through the shallow and relatively rimless inferior margin of the acetabulum. Treatment consists of closed reduction under sedation or general anaesthesia with axial traction, together with gradual extension of the femur with additional internal rotation manoeuvres.9

The common obturator type of dislocation occurs when the femur is physically abducted and twisted outwards when the patient slips or when another force is applied. If the forcible abduction and external rotation continue with flexion against the pelvis, the femur is levered anteriorly out of the acetabulum. Treatment comprises closed reduction under sedation/general anaesthesia with longitudinal traction in the direction of the femoral axis and gentle adduction and flexion of the hip with additional internal rotation manoeuvres.10

There is a strong consensus in the literature that CT examination be performed prior to reduction to assess a probable acetabular wall fracture or head split fracture of the femoral head.8 In the present case, we could not complete all markings on the CT scan because the abducted hip automatically blocked the CT platform. Fortunately, we evaluated the anterior and posterior acetabular walls and confirmed no remnants in the acetabular fossa nor any fractures on the acetabular walls. Based on the reduction and stability confirmed by physical examination after the reduction, radiographic examination after reduction and CT was postponed until 3 weeks after reduction, when the patient was allowed to fully weight bear for the first time.

Inferior hip dislocation is rare and can be successfully treated with closed reduction. Orthopaedic surgeons must be able to diagnose and optimally treat this type of dislocation. This report and videos serve as a teaching tool for this reduction manoeuvre.

Concept or design: Both authors.
Acquisition of data: Both authors.
Analysis or interpretation of data: Both Gokkus.
Drafting of the manuscript: K Gokkus.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Both authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.

Both authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

The patient was treated according to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided informed consent for all treatments, procedures, and consent for publication.

1. Mitsionis GI, Lykissas MG, Motsis E, et al. Surgical management of posterior hip dislocations associated with posterior wall acetabular fracture: a study with a minimum follow-up of 15 years. J Orthop Trauma 2012;26:460-5. Crossref

2. Parvaresh KC, Pennock AT, Bomar JD, Wenger DR, Upasani VV. Analysis of acetabular ossification from the triradiate cartilage and secondary centers. J Pediatr Orthop 2018;38:e145-50. Crossref

3. Kolar MK, Joseph S, McLaren A. Luxatio erecta of the hip. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2011;93:273. Crossref

4. Singh R, Sharma SC, Goel T. Traumatic inferior hip dislocation in an adult with ipsilateral trochanteric fracture. J Orthop Trauma 2006;20:220-2. Crossref

5. Walther MM, McCoin NS. Luxatio erecta of the hip. J Emerg Med 2013;44:985-6. Crossref

6. Tekin AÇ, Çabuk H, Büyükkurt CD, Dedeoğlu SS, İmren Y, Gürbüz H. Inferior hip dislocation after falling from height: a case report. Int J Surg Case Rep 2016;22:62-5. Crossref

7. Zeytin AT, Kaya S, Kaya FB, Ozcelik H. Traumatic inferior hip dislocation. J Med Cases 2015;6:238-9. Crossref

8. Yang RS, Tsuang YH, Hang YS, Liu TK. Traumatic dislocation of the hip. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1991;(265):218-27. Crossref

9. Cornwall R, Radomisli TE. Nerve injury in traumatic dislocation of the hip. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2000;(377):84-91.Crossref

10. Brogdon BG, Woolridge DA. Luxatio erecta of the hip: a critical retrospective. Skeletal Radiol 1997;26:548-52. Crossref

In October 2019, a 42-year-old pregnant woman was admitted to hospital at 35+2 weeks of gestation for an elective caesarean section because of anterior placenta praevia type I and suspected placenta accreta. She was gravida 6 and parity 3+2. Her first pregnancy in 1996 resulted in a normal vaginal delivery. The second and third pregnancies were surgically terminated in the first trimester. Fourth and fifth pregnancies resulted in a lower segment caesarean section in China due to oligohydramnios and previous caesarean section.

The patient had an uneventful antenatal course in the current pregnancy. Nonetheless ultrasound examination at 35+2 weeks of gestation revealed an anterior placenta praevia type I with the placenta’s leading-edge 2.7 cm from the os. A diagnosis of placenta accreta was made due to vascularities over the subserosal surface of the lower segment.

A classical caesarean section was performed after completing a course of antenatal corticosteroid at 36+4 weeks of gestation. Around four-fifths of the placenta separated spontaneously after 30 minutes. The placenta was trimmed away and 3 × 3 cm of anterior adherent placenta around the internal os was left in place. Active bleeding from the lower segment of the uterus and anterior placental bed was controlled with Sengstaken–Blakemore balloon tamponade (Rüsch Teleflex, Germany). Uterine artery embolisation was performed at the same operation by interventional radiologists. Total blood loss for the operation was 500 mL.

After surgery, the patient was transferred to the intensive care unit. Balloon tamponade was removed on day 1 (Fig 1). Prophylactic amoxicillin and clavulanate was administered intravenously after the operation. She complained of dysuria and developed a persistent swinging fever from day 2. Amoxicillin and clavulanate was switched to piperacillin/tazobactam on day 4 after blood and urine tests for sepsis. Culture of midstream urine showed Morganella morganii sensitive to piperacillin/tazobactam and a gram-negative bacillus. Microbiologists advised continuation of piperacillin/tazobactam for 7 to 10 days.

Examination under anaesthesia and ultrasound-guided suction evacuation were performed on day 14 due to increased per-vaginal bleeding. Intra-operatively, yellowish pus was seen leaking from the cervical os and retained product of gestation weighing 48 g was retrieved. Culture of the pus grew Escherichia coli sensitive to piperacillin/tazobactam. The patient again presented with fever postoperatively and blood culture revealed E coli septicaemia. Piperacillin/tazobactam was switched to meropenem on day 17. Blood culture sensitivity testing revealed E coli sensitive to meropenem and cefuroxime. Hence, meropenem was switched to cefuroxime. Ultrasound examination on day 24 revealed no evidence of retained product of gestation. Cefuroxime was continued for 14 days.

At 5-week follow-up examination, the patient reported a 1-week history of whitish debris in her urine, dysuria, and urinary frequency. Ultrasonography revealed incomplete emptying of the bladder with a lot of frothy shadows (Fig 2a). Urinary tract infection was suspected so amoxicillin and clavulanate and phenazopyridine were prescribed for 1 week. Culture of the midstream urine showed Candida glabrata (Fig 2b). A microbiologist was consulted and fluconazole 400 mg prescribed for 10 days.

Susceptibility testing of the C glabrata isolated from urine collected after admission was performed by using Sensititre YeastOne (TREK Diagnostic Systems, United Kingdom) and revealed a required fluconazole minimal inhibitory concentration of 16 μg/mL, confirming that it was in the susceptible-dose dependent category. However, the patient’s symptoms persisted after completing 24 days of fluconazole and ultrasound showed persistent “fungal debris” inside the bladder. She was readmitted 13 weeks after the operation for further management. Amphotericin B deoxycholate was administered intravenously for 7 days. A drug-related fever developed during the first dose but resolved after premedication with oral acetaminophen and intravenous diphenhydramine.

Flexible cystoscopy revealed necrotic tissue approximately 3 × 4 cm over the left posterior bladder wall, away from the left ureteric orifice, with an underlying ulcer (Fig 3a and b). It was removed with forceps and a basket. A fistula was suspected, and second flexible cystoscopy scheduled 2 months later. A computed tomography urogram with contrast was arranged to exclude fistula.

The second flexible cystoscopy revealed a normal bladder and a healed ulcer over the left posterior wall (Fig 3c). Computed tomography urogram showed no evidence of fistula. During postnatal follow-up, there were no urinary symptoms.

This is the first case of C glabrata cystitis as a complication in our case series of planned conservative management of placenta accreta.1 Candida species are a part of the normal flora of the gastrointestinal and vaginal tracts. The incidence of candiduria has been increasing in recent decades and the presence of C glabrata has become clinically significant due to its high resistance to routine antifungal agents. Risk factors for candiduria in our case included urinary catheterisation, intensive care unit stay, use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, female sex, and prior surgery.2

The placental remnants in our case induced infection and septicaemia. Subsequent prolonged use of broad-spectrum antibiotics predisposed our patient to fungal cystitis. There was no clinical or pathological evidence of placenta percreta. Chandraharan et al3 introduced the use of the Triple-P procedure to manage patients with morbidly adherent placenta. As the Triple-P procedure removes all intrauterine placental remnants, it may reduce the risk of intrauterine infection and sepsis. Nevertheless, there is limited surgical expertise in this procedure in our unit.

Compared with other Candida species, many C glabrata isolates are resistant to azoles due to efflux pump–mediated resistance, genetic alterations under stress and biofilm protection.4 A study in the United States revealed that 14% of C glabrata isolates were resistant to fluconazole.5

The presence of fungus ball/fungal bezoars in urinary tract infection is extremely rare in adults. According to treatment guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, removal of the obstructing mycelial mass by surgical or endoscopic means is strongly recommended.6 Although culture results revealed that the C glabrata was susceptible-dose-dependent to fluconazole, use of fluconazole alone was likely to be insufficient due to the fungal ball in the bladder. A multidisciplinary approach including microbiologists and urologists is essential.

In symptomatic Candida cystitis, first-line treatment is oral fluconazole 200 mg daily for 2 weeks. For fluconazole-resistant C glabrata, amphotericin B deoxycholate or oral flucytosine are the drugs of choice. Around 50% of patients prescribed an amphotericin B infusion experience infusion-related adverse events, such as fever, chills, rigors, hypotension, and rarely, hypokalaemia resulting in ventricular fibrillation. In addition, renal toxicity is a well-known adverse effect.5 Close monitoring of renal function and electrolytes is essential.

Placenta accreta spectrum treated conservatively by leaving the placenta in situ is a recognised and successful management option, but is associated with risks of infection or postpartum haemorrhage. Our case demonstrates that fungal infection can develop during the period of conservative management and requires multidisciplinary consultation.

Concept or design: CK Wong, WC Leung.
Acquisition of data: All authors.
Analysis or interpretation of data: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: CK Wong, WC Leung.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

The authors thank interventional radiologists Dr KH Lee and Dr CW Tang for their contributions to this report.

This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, provided informed consent for all treatments and procedures, and provided consent for publication.

1. Lo TK, Yung WK, Lau WL, Law B, Lau S, Leung WC. Planned conservative management of placenta accreta—experience of a regional general hospital. J Maternal Fetal Neonatal Med 2013;27:291-6. Crossref

2. Gajdács M, Dóczi I, Ábrók M, Lázár A, Burián K. Epidemiology of candiduria and Candida urinary tract infections in inpatients and outpatients: results from a 10-year retrospective survey. Cent European J Urol 2019;72:209-14.

3. Chandraharan E, Rao S, Belli A, Arulkumaran S. The Triple-P procedure as a conservative surgical alternative to peripartum hysterectomy for placenta percreta. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2012;117:191-4. Crossref

4. Rodrigues CF, Silva S, Henriques M. Candida glabrata: a review of its features and resistance. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2013;33:673-88. Crossref

5. Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Hollis RJ, et al. Variation in susceptibility of bloodstream isolates of Candida glabrata to fluconazole according to patient age and geographic location in the United States in 2001 to 2007. J Clin Microbiol 2009;47:3185-90. Crossref

6. Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, et al. Executive Summary: Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Candidiasis: 2016 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2016;62:409-17. Crossref

In January 2019, an 85-year-old woman with a history of osteoporosis and collapsed L1 had gastric antral vascular ectasia with multiple failed attempts of argon photo-coagulation, resulting in severe iron deficiency anaemia (haemoglobin 4 g/dL). The patient had been repeatedly admitted for congestive heart failure precipitated by anaemia that required blood transfusion. In view of her severe and ongoing blood loss, intravenous iron isomaltoside (Monofer) 800 mg monthly was started in February 2019. Before commencement of iron isomaltoside, iron saturation was 5% (normal 15%-50%). She was optimally nourished with normal serum calcium (2.27 mmol/L; normal 2.15-2.55 mmol/L), phosphate (1.4 mmol/L; normal 0.8-1.5 mmol/L), alkaline phosphatase (108 IU/L; normal 53-141 IU/L) and vitamin D level (79 nmol/L; normal 50-220 nmol/L). Hypophosphataemia (0.5 mmol/L) was first noted in June 2019 (Fig). Owing to the patient’s history of collapsed vertebra, she was given a first dose of denosumab in October 2019 by a private orthopaedic surgeon but serum phosphate further worsened to 0.1 mmol/L despite aggressive oral phosphate replacement. She refused hospital admission at this time. In December 2019, the patient was hospitalised for anaemia and hypophosphataemia (0.4 mmol/L) with concomitant serum calcium 2.07 mmol/L and alkaline phosphatase 199 IU/L. Her estimated glomerular filtration rate was >90 mL/min/1.73 m². Fractional excretion of phosphate confirmed renal phosphate wasting (FePO4 14%; normal <5%) and bicarbonate was 30 mmol/L (normal 22-26 mmol/L). Urinary protein and glucose were negative. Iron saturation was 24% and parathyroid hormone 22.6 nmol/L (normal 1.6-7.2 nmol/L). Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), measured 3 weeks after the last dose of iron isomaltoside, was 155 IU/mL (normal <188 IU/mL). Intravenous iron-induced hypophosphataemia was suspected. Iron isomaltoside was stopped and rocaltrol was commenced in January 2020 with prompt improvement in phosphate level. Another intravenous iron preparation, iron sucrose (Venofer), was started due to her severe anaemia. Attempted re-challenge with iron isomaltoside resulted in recurrent hypophosphataemia. Rocaltrol and phosphate sandoz were gradually tapered down over 6 months. Serum phosphate remained normal while on iron sucrose and denosumab.

Iron deficiency anaemia is a commonly encountered problem in daily practice. Although oral iron remains the recommended route of replacement due to its low cost and availability, intravenous iron is considered superior in several respects. First, the gastrointestinal side-effects of oral iron are avoided. Second, bioavailability is improved where that of oral iron is reduced in conditions such as achlorhydria (eg, proton pump inhibitors, gastric bypass), small bowel malabsorption (eg, inflammatory bowel disease, prior small bowel resection, celiac disease) and chronic inflammation (via upregulation of hepcidin). Third, intravenous iron allows rapid repletion of iron, making it a more suitable choice when there is severe and/or ongoing blood loss.

The new-generation intravenous iron preparations are all stable iron-carbohydrate complexes. The three commonly used intravenous iron preparations locally are iron carboxymaltose (Ferinject), iron isomaltoside (Monofer) and iron sucrose (Venofer). They differ in the attaching carbohydrate ligands that affect the capacity, stability and immunogenicity of the complex. Hypophosphataemia is a well-described complication of iron carboxymaltose but is far less common in the other two preparations: the incidence1 of hypophosphataemia is 58%, 4% and 1% for patients with preserved renal function given iron carboxymaltose, iron isomaltoside and iron sucrose, respectively. In addition, iron carboxymaltose–induced hypophosphataemia can be severe and protracted resulting in osteomalacia and multiple fractures. Although the pathogenesis2 is not fully understood, it is believed to be mediated through iron carboxymaltose–induced production of biologically active intact FGF23. The FGF23 is a phosphaturic hormone produced by osteocytes and osteoblasts. It reduces phosphate reabsorption by downregulation of sodium-phosphate co-transporter in the proximal renal tubule. The FGF23 also inhibits 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D synthesis, leading to vitamin D deficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism that contribute to reduced intestinal phosphate uptake and further increased renal phosphate wasting, respectively. Iron isomaltoside also increases intact FGF23 secretion, but to a much lesser extent than iron carboxymaltose.3 Again, such difference is speculated to be due to the carbohydrate ligand, since iron carboxymaltose and iron isomaltoside are equally effective in replenishing iron store. Although other indicators of proximal renal tubular dysfunction such as fractional excretion of urate and urine amino acid were not measured in this patient, the absence of glycosuria and non-suppressed FGF23 level were not typical of a diagnosis of renal Fanconi syndrome. In addition, improved serum phosphate level after stopping iron isomaltoside supported the diagnosis of iron-induced phosphaturia in this patient.

In the meta-analysis by Schaefer et al,4 low baseline iron saturation and normal renal function were identified as positive predictors of iron-induced hypophosphataemia; both were present in this patient. Severe iron deficiency may cause a higher increase in FGF23 transcription and renal impairment is protective due to intrinsic kidney resistance to FGF23. Furthermore, denosumab may have worsened the pre-existing hypophosphataemia induced by iron isomaltoside in this patient since serum phosphate level fell abruptly in October 2019, 1 week after denosumab injection. Denosumab is an anti-RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand) antibody that inhibits osteoclastic activity and hence bone resorption. Severe hypophosphataemia caused by denosumab has been described in a patient with tenofovir-induced osteomalacia5 and is possibly mediated through the following two mechanisms: first, decreased bone resorption directly reduces phosphate release; second, fall in bone-derived calcium worsens secondary hyperparathyroidism that in turn enhances phosphaturia. These may explain the profound hypophosphataemia in this patient after denosumab injection.

There are several reasons for the normal FGF23 level in this patient. First, the commercial FGF23 assay detects both intact and cleaved FGF23; an increased intact FGF23 together with a reduced cleaved FGF23 may result in a “normal” FGF23 level. Second, FGF23 may have dropped significantly 3 weeks after the last dose of iron isomaltoside. Third, FGF23 transcription was reduced with correction of iron deficiency as reflected by the normal iron saturation.

In addition to phosphate replacement and switching to a less phosphaturic intravenous iron preparation, activated vitamin D is needed to increase phosphate reabsorption during the initial phase, even in a patient with preserved renal function. This is because FGF23 inhibits renal activation of 25-dihydroxyvitamin D to its active form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D.

In conclusion, although hypophosphataemia is much less common in patients on iron isomaltoside than iron carboxymaltose, it is advisable to monitor phosphate level 1 to 2 weeks after iron isomaltoside injection in high-risk patients, such as those with severe anaemia who require repeat dosing, and patients with pre-existing vitamin D deficiency and/or hyperparathyroidism.

All authors contributed to the concept, acquisition of data, interpretation of data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision for important intellectual content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided informed consent for the treatment/procedures and publication.

1. Zoller H, Schaefer B, Glodny B. Iron-induced hypophosphatemia: an emerging complication. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2017;26:266-75. Crossref

2. Edmonston D, Wolf M. FGF23 at the crossroads of phosphate, iron economy and erythropoiesis. Nat Rev Nephrol 2020;16:7-19. Crossref

3. Wolf M, Rubin J, Achebe M, et al. Effects of iron isomaltoside vs ferric carboxymaltose on hypophosphatemia in iron-deficiency anemia: two randomized clinical trials. JAMA 2020;323:432-43. Crossref

4. Schaefer B, Tobiasch M, Viveiros A, et al. Hypophosphataemia after treatment of iron deficiency with intravenous ferric carboxymaltose or iron isomaltoside—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2021;87:2256-73. Crossref

5. Chung TL, Chen NC, Chen CL. Severe hypophosphatemia induced by denosumab in a patient with osteomalacia and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-related acquired Fanconi syndrome. Osteoporos Int 2019;30:519-23. Crossref

Ectopic pregnancy (EP), a condition in which a fertilised ovum does not implant in the endometrial cavity, occurs in 1% to 2% of all pregnancies.1 Up to 97% of EPs occur within the fallopian tube, but implantation can also occur at locations such as the cervix, ovary, uterine cornua and abdomen. Abdominal EPs are extremely rare, making up less than 1% of EPs.1 Their presentation can be non-specific and they are classified as primary or secondary abdominal pregnancies. We present a case of primary omental pregnancy with laparoscopy and omentectomy performed.

In January 2020, a 33-year-old gravida 1 para 0 woman was admitted to our gynaecology unit with right-sided abdominal pain. The patient’s past health was good and she had no history of gynaecological surgery, sexually transmitted disease or pelvic inflammatory disease. She had been treated in the private sector 3 weeks before to admission with ovulation induction and subsequent intrauterine insemination (IUI) for coital problems. Serum beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) was 48 mIU/L on day 18 and 768 mIU/L on day 22 after IUI. Ultrasound of the pelvis at 5 weeks of gestation showed no intrauterine sac. She also complained of mild per-vaginal bleeding on admission. Abdominal examination revealed tenderness over the right abdomen, next to the umbilicus. Transvaginal ultrasound of the pelvis on admission showed a linear endometrial lining, with no adnexal masses or pelvic free fluid identified. Blood tests showed a haemoglobin level of 12 g/dL and beta-HCG level of 1366 mIU/mL. Diagnostic laparoscopy was offered to the patient in view of her abdominal pain but she opted for beta-HCG monitoring as she was worried about a negative laparoscopy. She subsequently complained of severe right abdominal pain about 6 hours after admission. Repeat transvaginal ultrasound revealed no adnexal masses but a moderate amount of free fluid in the pouch of Douglas. Due to the increased abdominal pain and suspicion of a ruptured EP, the patient agreed to undergo laparoscopy.

Laparoscopy showed haemoperitoneum of 200 mL and a normal uterus, bilateral fallopian tubes and ovaries. Survey of the peritoneal cavity revealed a 5 × 5 cm haematoma attached to the omentum at the right hepatic flexure, with mild oozing from the site of attachment (Fig 1). The rest of the abdomen was unremarkable. General surgeons were consulted and omentectomy (including the site of bleeding) was performed.

The patient made an uneventful postoperative recovery and haemoglobin was stable. She was discharged on day 4 after surgery. Pathological examination revealed products of gestation mixed with inflammatory and reactive mesothelial cells (Fig 2). Beta-HCG monitoring after surgery showed a satisfactory drop to a non-pregnant level: 366 mIU/mL, 144 mIU/mL, and 1.7 mIU/mL on days 2, 4, and 18 after surgery.

Among EPs, abdominal pregnancy is most rare. They have been classified as either primary or secondary. Our case meets the criteria established by Studdiford2 for a primary abdominal pregnancy: normal, bilateral fallopian tubes and ovaries with no recent or remote injury; absence of any uteroperitoneal fistula; and presence of a pregnancy related exclusively to the peritoneal surface and diagnosed early enough to exclude the possibility of secondary implantation after primary nidation elsewhere.

Early preoperative diagnosis of an abdominal EP is very difficult in many cases. A systematic review by Poole et al3 showed that among patients with a final diagnosis of omental EP, none had a preoperative diagnosis of abdominal pregnancy. As a result of the diagnostic difficulty, there is usually a delay from presentation to definitive treatment with some cases requiring diagnosis by serial HCG monitoring supplemented with magnetic resonance imaging. A high level of vigilance is therefore vital when monitoring the symptoms and vital signs of a suspected case, and early surgical intervention should be considered if there is clinical deterioration. In our case, we elected to perform emergent laparoscopy in view of increased abdominal pain and free fluid in the pouch of Douglas.

Laparotomy with excision of the embryo has been the classic management for abdominal pregnancy.4 However, with its widespread availability, laparoscopy should be the modality of choice, especially when the patient is haemodynamically stable, as in our case, and the required expertise is available. Laparoscopic management is associated with fewer morbidities, reduced intraoperative blood loss and a shorter hospital stay. The importance of a general peritoneal survey is paramount; in cases of normal fallopian tubes and ovaries, extra care must be taken not to miss an EP elsewhere in the peritoneum and prematurely commit to a negative laparoscopy. If a difficult resection is encountered, the expertise of a general surgeon will be of benefit. Alternatives to surgical treatment have also been reported,3 such as intralesional methotrexate, intramuscular methotrexate, intracardiac potassium chloride injection and artery embolisation. However, the prerequisites for non-surgical treatment include reliable imaging and for the patient to be haemodynamically stable.

Assisted reproductive techniques are known to be associated with an increased risk of EP. Some reports state an incidence of up to 4.5% with assisted reproductive technology compared with a spontaneous pregnancy.5 With regard to IUI, the incidence of EP is reported to be 2.05% compared with 3.33% for in vitro fertilisation. A higher risk of EP is also associated with stimulated cycles (compared with natural cycles: 2.62% vs 0.99%) and use of husband sperm (compared with donor sperm: 3.54% vs 1.08%). Many postulations have been made regarding the mechanism of an abdominal EP.3 As ovarian induction was performed in this case, the risk of EP was increased. In the setting of IUI, it is possible that the fertilised embryo develops as a primary tubal pregnancy that subsequently passes through the fimbrial end and implants into the omentum.

Although omental EPs are extremely rare, and in our case, the first of such a condition found after IUI, clinical suspicion must be high in a patient who presents with symptoms suggestive of EP but with normal uterus and adnexa during intraoperative exploration. Clinicians should always be vigilant with regard to the patient’s clinical condition, and there should be a low threshold for surgical intervention if clinical deterioration is noted. In addition, with the rising application of assisted reproductive technology, the risk of EPs, and by extension the risk of abdominal EPs, is also increased, making the diagnosis and treatment of this potentially life-threatening condition evermore challenging.

All authors contributed to the design of the report, acquisition of data, drafting of the manuscript and critical revision for important intellectual content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained for all treatment involved as well as for publication of this article and accompanying images.

1. Fylstra DL. Ectopic pregnancy not within the (distal) fallopian tube: etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012;206:289-99. Crossref

2. Studdiford WE. Primary peritoneal pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1942;44:487-91. Crossref

3. Poole A, Haas D, Magann EF. Early abdominal ectopic pregnancies: a systematic review of the literature. Gynecol Obstet Invest 2012;74:249-60. Crossref

4. Yip SL, Tan WK, Tan LK. Primary omental pregnancy. BMJ Case Rep 2016;2016: bcr2016217327. Crossref

5. Bu Z, Xiong Y, Wang K, Sun Y. Risk factors for ectopic pregnancy in assisted reproductive technology: a 6-year, single-center study. Fertil Steril 2016;106:90-4. Crossref

In January 2019, a 31-year-old man with a history of amphetamine abuse presented with a 10-day history of watery diarrhoea and abdominal pain. On admission, he had a fever of 38.1°C and tachycardia but normal blood pressure. Abdominal examination revealed tenderness and guarding over the lower abdomen. The patient was resuscitated and intravenous antibiotics prescribed since an infective cause was considered most likely. Abdominal plain radiograph showed grossly dilated small and especially large bowel (diameter up to 9 cm). White cell count was 22×10⁹/L (neutrophil differential count 19×10⁹/L), liver and renal function were unremarkable. Contrast computed tomography (CT) scan of the abdomen and pelvis revealed extensive colitis, suggesting pseudomembranous colitis or diffuse colitis. Stool culture for Clostridium difficile was negative and stool microscopy revealed no ova or cysts. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B and C virus serologies were non-reactive. He was treated as pseudomembranous colitis by the medical gastrointestinal team and commenced on oral vancomycin. Later sigmoidoscopy revealed inflamed mucosa with multiple ulcers, especially at the sigmoid colon (Fig 1). Biopsies were taken. The patient’s condition deteriorated and he developed septic shock. A new contrast CT scan showed pneumoperitoneum. Emergency laparotomy was performed and revealed generalised faecal peritonitis with the whole colon necrosed and communicating with the peritoneal cavity. Debridement of necrotic tissue and multiple segmental resections of bowel with end ileostomy were performed in stages. The diagnosis of fulminant amoebic colitis (FAC) was made on histopathological evaluation of the biopsy and resection specimen (Fig 2). Antibiotics were switched to metronidazole accordingly. The patient’s condition was later complicated by an intra-abdominal fluid collection and image guided drainage was performed. He was initially nursed in the intensive care unit and then transferred to a surgical ward for rehabilitation. He was discharged from hospital 4 months later.

In February 2020, a 61-year-old man presented with a ≥1-week history of diarrhoea, abdominal pain, high fever of 39°C and tachycardia with normal blood pressure. Abdominal examination showed diffuse tenderness, but without peritoneal signs. The patient’s medical history was otherwise good, and initial investigations including blood tests and plain radiographs were all unremarkable. In view of the progressive abdominal distension, urgent contrast CT was arranged and showed a suspected perforated caecum. Emergency surgery found ischaemic colon extending from the caecum to mid sigmoid, with perforations over the proximal transverse colon and hepatic flexure. Subtotal colectomy with end ileostomy was performed. He was transferred to the intensive care unit after surgery and required vasopressor and continuous venovenous haemofiltration due to severe sepsis. He showed a good response and was weaned off vasopressor support on postoperative day 4. Pathology of the surgical specimen later confirmed amoebic colitis with extensive ulcer and perforation (Fig 3). There were no features of atherosclerosis, vasculitis, thromboembolism, or inflammatory bowel disease. Microscopic results were also available after surgery. Stool culture for C difficile, stool microscopy for amoeba, stool microscopy for ova or cysts, stool polymerase chain reaction for virus, and HIV serology test results were all negative, but Entamoeba histolytica serology test was positive. He was prescribed metronidazole for 14 days and then oral diloxanide furoate for 10 days as suggested by the microbiologist. The patient’s recovery was later complicated by wound dehiscence and abdominal cocoon. Repeat surgery for debridement was performed and skin closure changed to an ABTHERA temporary abdominal closure system. The patient recovered gradually and was transferred to a rehabilitation unit 3 months after surgery.

Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite and the cause of amoebiasis in humans.1 Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to avoid progression to fulminant colitis. Amoebic dysentery is classified as a notifiable disease in Hong Kong. Prevalence of amoebiasis is higher in developing countries such as India, Mexico, and parts of Central and South America,2 mainly related to poor socioeconomic and sanitary conditions. In developed countries, where faecal-oral transmission is unusual, amoebiasis is more often seen in immigrants from or individuals with a travel history to endemic areas. Other groups at risk include male homosexuals3 with or without HIV, infants, pregnant women, and those taking immunosuppressants, especially corticosteroids.1 Neither of our two cases had a relevant travel history in the past year, and they presented several months apart, so they are unlikely to be imported cases or to have had the same source of infection. Case 1 had some risk factors for amoebiasis: he was a male homosexual living in rental housing with shared rooms. A detailed history taking from patients who present with severe diarrhoea is crucial. Prompt initiation of anti-amoebic treatment should be considered in cases where there is a high index of suspicion.

Although E histolytica can be cultured in vitro, this is neither routinely performed nor is it a gold standard in the diagnosis of amoebic colitis because amoebic culture is insensitive (25%). The most commonly used laboratory test is stool microscopy to identify trophozoites or cysts, although this also has low sensitivity (<60%) and specificity (10%-50%). As exemplified by our two cases, both had negative stool microscopy. In some laboratories, stool antigen detection of E histolytica might be available. However, neither stool microscopy (in the absence of ingested erythrocytes in the trophozoites) nor some antigen detection kits can distinguish between pathogenic E histolytica and commensal Entamoeba dispar. Serum antibody is commonly positive in patients with invasive amoebiasis,4 especially in endemic areas. It may be difficult to differentiate past from active infection since antibodies may persist for some time. Recent commercially available multiplex polymerase chain reaction systems offer a rapid and sensitive way of detecting E histolytica DNA in stool; however, cost and availability limit their application in most patients.

Another popular non-invasive investigation is different modalities of imaging, especially contrast CT scan. Some CT features specific to amoebic colitis have been reported. These include extended submucosal ulcers with intramural dissection caused by flask-shaped ulcers typical of amoebiasis and omental “wrapping” indicating adhesions with neovascularisation due to ischaemic foci of transmural amoebic colitis.5 Other non-specific findings include pancolitis with areas of target signs, discontinuous bowel necrosis and coexistence of liver abscess. None of these features were evident on CT scans in our patients. In clinical practice, CT scan is not sensitive and has a small role in diagnosing FAC. It is mainly used to distinguish the severity of colitis, looking for complications such as bowel perforation or ischaemia.

Sigmoidoscopy and/or colonoscopy with biopsy can also be performed as a diagnostic tool. However, there is a high risk of perforation, especially of inflamed or even ischaemic bowel. We do not recommend endoscopic investigations in cases of severe colitis or in patients with high fever.

Preoperative diagnosis of FAC remains a challenge and detailed history taking plays an important role in identifying high-risk cases.

Mild cases of amoebic colitis can be treated medically with metronidazole to control systemic invasion and diloxanide furoate, a luminal agent, in addition to eliminating luminal cysts. If the condition becomes transmural, conservative treatment is no longer appropriate. Early diagnosis and extensive surgical treatment are important to reduce morbidity and mortality.1 In both our cases, with both complicated by bowel perforation, extensive bowel resection was immediately performed.

Intra-operatively, skipped lesions with multiple transmural perforations of bowel were noticed. However, some gross features make differentiation from other pathology difficult, especially Crohn’s disease. In our patients, necrotic tissue was more friable with little bleeding from the necrotic bowel wall. These features are quite unique compared with other causes of bowel ischaemia. This may be related to severe necrosis with consequent poor vascular supply to the bowel. In the worst case, the necrotic bowel wall communicates with the peritoneal cavity, making bowel resection more difficult as the dissection planes may be disrupted. Therefore, extensive debridement of necrotic tissue or even staged operations are required. Special gross features of FAC are seldom mentioned in other case reports. Early identification of these features enables early commencement of empirical anti-amoebic treatment and aids the recovery of patients.

Concept or design: LM Tam, KC Ng, CH Man.
Acquisition of data: LM Tam
Analysis or interpretation of data: LM Tam, FY Cheng, Y Gao.
Drafting of the manuscript: LM Tam.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: KC Ng, CH Man.

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

The patients were treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The patients provided verbal informed consent for the treatment/procedures and consent for publication.

1. Stanley SL Jr. Amoebiasis. Lancet 2003;361:1025-34. Crossref

2. Haque R, Huston CD, Hughes M, Houpt E, Petri WA Jr. Amebiasis. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1565-73. Crossref

3. Roure S, Valerio L, Soldevila L, et al. Approach to amoebic colitis: epidemiological, clinical and diagnostic considerations in a non-endemic context (Barcelona, 2007-2017). PLoS One 2019;14:e0212791. Crossref

4. Tanyuksel M, Petri WA Jr. Laboratory diagnosis of amebiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003;16:713-29. Crossref

5. Kinoo SM, Ramkelawon VV, Maharajh J, Singh B. Fulminant amoebic colitis in the era of computed tomography scan: a case report and review of the literature. SA J Radiol 2018;22:1354. Crossref