Multidisciplinary staged management of iliofemoral venous thrombosis caused by huge uterine fibroid: a case report

© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Multidisciplinary staged management of iliofemoral venous thrombosis caused by huge uterine fibroid: a case report
H Zhang, MD1; HL Li, MD, PhD1; YC Chan, MB, BS, BSc1,2; DZ Cui, MD1; SW Cheng, MB, BS, MS1,2
1 Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, The University of Hong Kong–Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
2 Division of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, The University of Hong Kong Medical Centre, Queen Mary Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Prof YC Chan (ycchan88@hkucc.hku.hk)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
A 45-year-old woman was admitted with a 2-day history of sudden-onset swelling and pain of her left thigh and calf. There was no history of trauma or prolonged immobilisation. The patient had a history of menorrhagia and a large uterine fibroid treated conservatively. Physical examination showed that the left leg was grossly swollen and tender, with palpable pedal pulses, with a large pelvic mass 15 cm in diameter. Emergency ultrasound duplex scan revealed a left iliofemoral venous thrombosis (Fig 1a). There were no symptoms of pulmonary embolism (PE). Blood D-dimer level was elevated at 9.49 μg/mL. Pulmonary computed tomographic angiography was unremarkable.
 

Figure 1. (a) Emergency ultrasound duplex scan showing left iliofemoral venous thrombosis with total occlusion; (b) confirmed by venogram after admission. (c) Abdominal contrast computed tomography scan showing the inferior vena cava and left iliac vein (black arrows) were flattened by a large uterine fibroid (black star)
 
Anticoagulation with low-molecular-weight heparin (Enoxaparin [Sanofi, France], 6000 IU, once every 12 hours) was given immediately. Venogram on the second day after admission revealed a left iliofemoral deep venous thrombosis (DVT) with total occlusion (Fig 1b). A retrievable inferior vena cava filter (Lifetech; Shenzhen, China) was placed via the right femoral vein. Left popliteal vein puncture was performed under ultrasound guidance with the patient in a prone position, and a 6F sheath inserted. A 0.035” wire was passed through the left thrombosed femoral and iliac vein, and an AngioJet catheter (Boston Scientific, United States) passed over the wire. After injection of 200 000 IU of urokinase through the AngioJet catheter for 15 minutes, mechanical thrombectomy was performed under fluoroscopy. Completion venography confirmed that the femoral veins and iliac veins were completely recanalised, but with some residual stenosis noted at the proximal left common iliac vein. Venoplasty with a 10-mm × 80-mm balloon (Advance 35LP Low-Profile PTA Balloon Dilatation Catheter; Cook, United States) was performed but the left common iliac vein collapsed after withdrawal. In view of her history of giant uterine fibroid, an abdominal contrast computed tomography scan was performed and demonstrated a large uterine fibroid measuring 160 mm × 100 mm × 180 mm. The inferior vena cava and left iliac vein were compressed and flattened (Fig 1c).
 
After urgent multidisciplinary consultation involving vascular surgeons and gynaecologists, a transabdominal hysterectomy and bilateral salpingectomy was performed 1 week later. The oncologist was also involved in the diagnosis and management of this case and decided against radiotherapy or chemotherapy following surgery. Anticoagulation with low-molecular-weight heparin was administered perioperatively. Although the gynaecologist encountered some difficulties dissecting the uterus that was too large with the anterior wall tightly adherent to the bladder, the operation was completed with no complications. Postoperatively, left leg swelling was much improved but repeated duplex ultrasound showed residual, albeit minimal, iliac vein thrombosis.
 
Repeat left iliac vein angioplasty and stenting was performed 1 week later. Left proximal common iliac vein stenosis was identified on venogram, not improved by venoplasty alone with a 12-mm × 80-mm balloon (Cook) [Fig 2a] but resolved following deployment of a self-expanding 14-mm × 80-mm Zilver stent (Cook) [Fig 2b]. The vena cava filter was not retrieved as there was a large thrombus lodged in the caval filter, demonstrated by a filling defect at the apex of the filter. Subsequently, left leg swelling significantly improved (Fig 3a and b) and the patient was prescribed anticoagulation with rivaroxaban for 1 year after surgery. The patient remained asymptomatic during regular out-patient follow-up examinations (Fig 3c and d) and the iliac stent remained patent on ultrasound scan at 2 years after surgery (Fig 4).
 

Figure 2. (a) Left proximal common iliac vein stenosis was not improved by venoplasty alone but (b) resolved after stent (black arrows) deployment
 

Figure 3. (a) Swollen left leg on admission, (b) improvement 1 week after thrombectomy and stenting, and complete resolution at (c) 3 months and (d) 2 years after surgery
 

Figure 4. Ultrasound duplex scan revealed that the iliac stent was patent at 2 years after surgery
 
Discussion
Uterine fibroids are common and benign but can cause external compression on the iliac veins leading to venous stasis and DVT formation, akin to a subclinical May-Thurner phenomenon. Owing to the complexity of the pathogenesis and the severity of complications, patients with extensive DVT secondary to fibroid uterus should be managed urgently with a multidisciplinary approach.
 
Iatrogenic manipulation of the iliac veins during surgery for hysterectomy may lead to dislodgement of thrombi and increased risk of pulmonary embolus.1 It is therefore advisable to have a caval filter in situ and to continue with systemic anticoagulation perioperatively. A caval filter during thrombolysis should also be used routinely to reduce the risk of embolisation when percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy (PMT) is planned.2 The caval filter can be removed within 2 weeks if there are no further thrombi but must remain in situ if there are large clots in the apex of the caval filter. Ideally, in our patient with acute iliofemoral vein thrombosis, the hysterectomy should be performed safely with the inferior vena cava filter in place to prevent life-threatening PE during surgery. Thrombectomy and iliac vein stenting may be performed after hysterectomy. Percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy provides greatest benefit in patients with acute extensive proximal (above knee) DVT, and is best performed within 14 days of onset of symptoms.3
 
Compared with catheter-directed thrombolysis, the potential benefits of mechanical thrombectomy include shorter procedural time, lower thrombolytic dosage, lower associated systemic effects, and higher thrombus clearance.4 The success rate for PMT has been reported to be 93.4%,4 with a venous patency rate of 75% to 100% after mean follow-up of 12.3 months.5 The potential complications of PMT include injury or perforation of the vein, PE caused by thrombus during thrombectomy, and thrombolytic agent-related haemorrhage. Nonetheless to date, there has been no report of the application of PMT in the treatment of DVT secondary to uterine fibroid. A retrospective study showed that PMT is an acceptable initial therapy in venous thrombosis patients with May-Thurner syndrome.6 In our patient, PMT was proven effective and safe in the treatment of acute proximal DVT caused by uterine fibroid.
 
Current guidelines make no recommendation about the duration of anticoagulation following iliofemoral vein stenting. Nonetheless it has been reported that in selected patients with acute iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis and patent venous stent, particularly younger and otherwise healthy patients with May-Thurner syndrome, anticoagulation therapy can be safely discontinued 3 to 12 months after endovascular treatment.7 Our patient received anticoagulation for 1 year after surgery.
 
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case in the world’s literature to report a dedicated staged venous procedure to treat a left iliofemoral DVT in the presence of a large uterine fibroid. Application of a staged process that combined urgent caval filter insertion, PMT to remove the DVT thrombus load as soon as possible, and then hysterectomy to remove the external venous compression, and finally completion venogram with angioplasty or stenting of any residual stenosis was an effective and safe treatment for acute iliac DVT with large uterine fibroid. This multidisciplinary dedicated staged therapeutic strategy resulted in a successful long-term outcome.
 
Author contributions
Concept or design: H Zhang, HL Li, YC Chan.
Acquisition of data: H Zhang and DZ Cui.
Analysis or interpretation of data: H Zhang, HL Li, SW Cheng.
Drafting of the manuscript: H Zhang, HL Li, YC Chan.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.
 
All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided written informed consent for all treatment and procedures and for publication of this paper.
 
References
1. Gupta S, Manyonda IT. Acute complications of fibroids. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2009;23:609-17.Crossref
2. Avgerinos ED, Hager ES, Jeyabalan G, Marone L, Makaroun MS, Chaer RA. Inferior vena cava filter placement during thrombolysis for acute iliofemoral deep venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord 2014;2:274-81. Crossref
3. Kearon C, Kahn SR, Agnelli G, Goldhaber S, Raskob GE, Comerota AJ. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th edition). Chest 2008;133(6 Suppl):454S-545S. Crossref
4. Wang W, Sun R, Chen Y, Liu C. Meta-analysis and systematic review of percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy for lower extremity deep vein thrombosis. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord 2018;6:788-800. Crossref
5. Wong PC, Chan YC, Law Y, Cheng SW. Percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy in the treatment of acute iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis: a systematic review. Hong Kong Med J 2019;25:48-57. Crossref
6. Kim IS, Jo WM, Chung HH, Lee SH. Comparison of clinical outcomes of pharmaco-mechanical thrombectomy in iliac vein thrombosis with and without May-Thurner syndrome. Int Angiol 2018;37:12-8.
7. Sebastian T, Engelberger RP, Spirk D, et al. Cessation of anticoagulation therapy following endovascular thrombus removal and stent placement for acute iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis. Vasa 2019;48:331-9. Crossref

Extended middle pancreatectomy for a large pancreatic cystic neoplasm: a case report

Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Extended middle pancreatectomy for a large pancreatic cystic neoplasm: a case report
Albert KK Chui, FRACS, MD1; Juanita N Chui, BSC (Adv), MD2; Gregory E Antonio, FHKAM (Radiology), MD3; KC Lam, MB, BS, FHKAM (Surgery)4
1 Private Practice
2 School of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
3 Department of Radiology, St Teresa’s Hospital, Hong Kong
4 Private Practice
 
Corresponding author: Dr Albert KK Chui (akkchui@netvigator.com)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
In December 2016, a 47-year-old Chinese woman was referred to our clinic for treatment of a large cystic pancreatic lesion. She presented with a 12-month history of intermittent epigastric pain associated with eating and weight loss of 5 kg. The patient had a history of uterine fibroids and underwent myomectomy 10 years previously. She was also under observation for a benign thyroid nodule. She had no family history of malignancy, denied consumption of alcohol, was a non-smoker, and lived as a housewife.
 
A contrast-enhanced computed tomography scan of the abdomen revealed a cystic neoplasm 8 cm in diameter involving the head, neck, and body of the pancreas, with proximal dilatation of the pancreatic duct (Fig 1). Based on the patient’s symptoms and the size of the lesion, surgical resection was recommended. Preoperative laboratory test results, including full blood count, liver and renal function tests, blood glucose level, amylase, carcinoembryonic antigen, and cancer antigen 19.9, were within normal limits.
 

Figure 1. Multiplanar reformatted oblique computed tomography (a) axial and (b) coronal images showing a multilocular complex cystic lesion (arrows) centred in the pancreatic neck. The pancreatic duct proximal to this mass was dilated
 
During surgery, a multiloculated cystic lesion was identified (Fig 2). The cystic content was serous. No nearby enlarged lymph nodes or tissue invasion suggestive of frank malignancy were evident. The pancreatic tail was healthy. An extended middle pancreatectomy (EMP) was performed. The patient recovered without complication and was discharged from hospital 13 days after surgery. Histological examination of the resected tissue confirmed a benign serous cystadenoma.
 

Figure 2. Intraoperative photographs. (a) The large pancreatic cystic neoplasm evident within the lesser sac. (b) The gastroduodenal junction was divided. (c) The cystic tumour has been resected. The portal vein and stumps of pancreas on either end are exposed. (d) Pancreatojejunostomy with the stump of the distal pancreas invaginated inside the jejunum
 
Surgical procedure
A bilateral subcostal incision was made. The lesser sac was entered to expose the anterior aspect of the pancreas after division of the gastrocolic ligament (Fig 2a). The gastroduodenal junction was purposefully divided to gain better exposure of the large cystic lesion and to facilitate further pancreatic dissection (Fig 2b). The posterior peritoneum along the inferior and superior margins of the pancreas was dissected. The superior mesenteric vein was identified under the neck of the pancreas. The splenic vein was carefully divided away from the gland and all the small branches of the pancreas draining into the splenic vein were ligated. The gallbladder was removed to facilitate identification and mobilisation of the common bile duct, the hepatic artery, and the portal vein from above. The involved portion of the pancreas was mobilised on both cephalic and caudal sides. The cystic tumour was resected in its entirety with a margin by scalpel and cautery. Most of the head (estimated 80%-90%), neck, and body of the pancreas were removed (Fig 2c). The remaining pancreatic head stump was carefully over-sewn with 3-O Prolene sutures (Ethicon; Cornelia [GA], United States) to avoid pancreatic leak. The pancreatic duct opening was identified and separately sutured. The stump was further re-enforced with fibrin sealant, Tisseel glue (Baxter Healthcare, Deerfield [IL], United States). The distal side stump was anastomosed into a Roux loop of jejunum using an end-to-end technique with invagination (Fig 2d). A short segment of catheter was inserted into the pancreatic duct. The gastric pylorus was then joined up to the proximal jejunum as a gastrojejunostomy and a jejunojejunostomy was fashioned to prevent bile reflux. The proximal jejunum was reconnected to the jejunal Roux loop distally. Two drainage tubes were placed close to the closed cephalic stump and the pancreaticojejunostomy anastomosis before proceeding with abdominal wound closure.
 
Discussion
For benign or low-grade malignant lesions of the pancreatic neck and body, traditional approaches for surgical resection include a pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) or an extended distal pancreatectomy. Enucleation is suitable only for small and superficial lesions that do not have any connection with the pancreatic duct. In 1957, Guillemin and Bessot first reported the technique of middle pancreatectomy (MP) for chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic transection injury.1 In 1982, Dagradi and Serio proposed the use of MP for resection of benign tumours or tumours with low malignant potential situated in the pancreatic neck and body.2 The technique has since gained acceptance.
 
In this case, the large cystadenoma involved a significant portion of the head of the pancreas in addition to the neck and the body. Traditional approaches for resection of such a lesion would involve either subtotal pancreatectomy or PD. The MP technique described in the literature has not included resection of the head of the pancreas. However, in this case, most of the pancreatic head in addition to the neck and the body of pancreas had to be resected. Therefore, the procedure is being formally named for the first time, EMP.
 
Extended middle pancreatectomy permits resection of a lesion that extends into the head of the pancreas while conferring similar advantages of an MP over traditional approaches. Compared with other surgical options (subtotal pancreatectomy and PD), this confers the advantage of parenchymal preservation and consequent preservation of pancreatic exocrine and endocrine functions.3 Pancreaticoduodenectomy has been associated with increased postoperative morbidity and mortality. Similarly, the inability to preserve the spleen in subtotal pancreatectomy has been associated with complications of thrombosis and susceptibility to infection. Finally, MP has been associated with a higher incidence of pancreatic fistula, compared with PD and extended distal pancreatectomy procedures.4 5 This has been attributed to the need to manage two pancreatic remnants by anastomosis or closure. However, as much less pancreatic head tissue is left behind in EMP, the risk of pancreatic leak from the proximal stump should theoretically be lower than that observed in MP.
 
We report, to the best of our knowledge, the first clinical case of EMP in the management of a large cystic neoplasm. This case demonstrated excellent postoperative outcomes and suggests that EMP may be considered a viable preferred surgical option in selected cases. However, the technical difficulties of this procedure should not be underestimated. The long-term functional outcomes have yet to be substantiated by further clinical experience.
 
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the concept or design of the study, acquisition of the data, analysis or interpretation of the data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
As an Editor of the Journal, AKK Chui was not involved in the peer review process. The other authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. Patient consent was obtained.
 
References
1. Guillemin P, Bessot M. Chronic calcifying pancreatitis in renal tuberculosis: pancreatojejunostomy using an original technic [in French]. Mem Acad Chir (Paris) 1957;83:869-71.
2. Dagradi A, Serio G. Pancreatectomia intermedia. In: Enciclopedia Medica Italiana. Pancreas, vol XI. Florence: USES Ed Scientifiche; 1984: 850-1.
3. Tan Z, Chen P, Dong Z, Zhou B, Guo WD. Clinical efficacy of middle pancreatectomy contrasts distal pancreatectomy: a single-institution experience and review of literature. ANZ J Surg 2019;89:E184-9. Crossref
4. Shibata S, Sato T, Andoh H, et al. Outcomes and indications of segmental pancreatectomy. Comparison with distal pancreatectomy. Dig Surg 2004;21:48-53. Crossref
5. Du ZY, Chen S, Han BS, Shen BY, Liu YB, Peng CH. Middle segmental pancreatectomy: a safe and organ-preserving option foe benign and low-grade malignant lesions. World J Gastroenterol 2013;19:1458-65. Crossref

Management of cytokine release syndrome after chimeric antigen T-cell therapy for paediatric relapsed/refractory acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: a case report

Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Management of cytokine release syndrome after chimeric antigen T-cell therapy for paediatric relapsed/refractory acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: a case report
Frankie WT Cheng, MD (CUHK), FHKAM (Paediatrics), 1,2Ben S Li, MD3; Grace KS Lam, FHKCPaed, HKAM (Paediatrics)1,2; KL Hon, MD, FAAP1,2; Gavin Joynt, FRCP (Edin), FHKAM (Anaesthesiology)4; CK Li, MD, FRCPCH1,2,5
1 Department of Paediatrics, Prince of Wales Hospital, Hong Kong
2 Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Hong Kong Children’s Hospital, Hong Kong
3 Department of Hematology & Oncology, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, National Children’s Medical Center, Shanghai, China
4 Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
5 Department of Paediatrics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Prof CK Li (ckli@cuhk.edu.hk)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
The event-free survival rate of standard risk/low-risk childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) is approaching 90%, but there remains around 10% to 15% of children who suffer relapse.1 Early relapse of ALL or refractory ALL has a very poor prognosis, even with haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. In recent years, chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy has offered a promising treatment for relapsed/refractory ALL.2 At present, CAR-T therapy is not available for ALL patients in Hong Kong. Cytokine release syndrome (CRS) is one of the most challenging complications following CAR-T therapy. We report our experience of four children prescribed CAR-T therapy for relapsed/refractory B-cell ALL.
 
Between June 2018 and March 2019, four children with relapsed/refractory CD19+ B-cell ALL (aged 1-17 years at first relapse) received CAR-T CD19 therapy at a haematology centre in Shanghai, China. Patients 1, 2, and 3 received autologous CAR-T cell products and patient 4 received allogeneic CAR-T cell products. The patients returned to Hong Kong within 12 hours of CAR-T cell infusion and were cared for at our centre. Their clinical progress and outcome are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
 

Table 1. Demographics of patients prescribed CAR-T therapy for ALL
 

Table 2. Presentation and management of CRS after CAR-T therapy
 
All patients experienced bone marrow relapses shortly following haematopoietic stem cell transplantation or had refractory leukaemic disease before receiving CAR-T therapy (Table 1). Three patients had a high leukaemic disease burden (>75% blast in bone marrow) prior to CAR-T therapy. For presentation of CRS, the first 10 days was the peak onset time, from 6 hours to 9 days following CAR-T cell infusion. The most common presenting symptoms were high fever with temperature >39°C, tachycardia, hypotension, and desaturation. As clinical differentiation from sepsis was difficult, all patients received empirical broad-spectrum antibiotics. Patients were managed with oxygen supplementation via a nasal cannula or high-flow oxygen when there was desaturation. Inotropic support in the intensive care unit was provided in the presence of hypotension. No child required invasive ventilatory support. Systemic steroid was prescribed only to patient 4 who had grade 3 CRS. No patient developed neurotoxicity and all were discharged from the intensive care unit.
 
Three patients (patients 1, 3, and 4) succumbed to disease relapse 2 to 8 months after CAR-T therapy. One patient (patient 2) remained disease-free for 9 months after CAR-T therapy with satisfactory Lansky performance score.
 
Discussion
Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy is a promising novel therapeutic option for relapsed and refractory CD19+ B-cell ALL in children and young adults.2 Cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity are the two most severe complications of CAR-T therapy. This has been reported to occur any time in the first 2 weeks after infusion of CAR-T cells. Up to 45% to 91% of patients develop CRS including serious CRS in 8.3% to 43% of cases.3 The American Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation consensus grading system for CRS is based on the assessment of three vital signs: temperature, blood pressure, and oxygen saturation. Patients with fever (temperature >38°C) alone constitute grade 1 CRS; patients with fever and hypotension without the need for a vasopressor are considered grade 2; patients with fever, hypotension requiring vasopressor and/or hypoxia requiring oxygen supplementation are grade 3. In grade 4 CRS, patients have fever with hypotension requiring multiple vasopressors and positive pressure ventilation.4
 
In recent years many centres in Western countries and mainland China have started to provide CAR-T therapy, either as part of a clinical trial or as standard treatment using commercial CAR-T cell products. The treatment will soon be introduced in Hong Kong so local experience of managing CRS will be of interest to our readers.
 
Cytokine release syndrome is a systemic inflammatory response that can be triggered by a variety of factors such as infection and certain drugs. The term “cytokine release syndrome” was first used in the early 1990s when the anti–T-cell antibody muromonab-CD3 (OKT3) was introduced as an immunosuppressive treatment for solid organ transplantation. Recently, with the success of the newer T-cell-engaging immunotherapy, namely blinatumomab, there has been a refocus on CRS since it represents one of the most frequent serious complications.5 The clinical features of CRS sometimes overlap with those of haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis or macrophage activation syndrome.6 In our cohort, the peak onset was observed in the first 10 days following CAR-T therapy. A high disease burden prior to CAR-T therapy may be associated with severe CRS. Close monitoring and early intervention are key for successful control of CRS. Remaining alert for this condition and timely institution of monoclonal antibody against interleukin-6 receptor (tocilizumab 8 mg/kg; 12 mg/kg if body weight <30 kg), or adding systemic steroid in severe cases together with intensive cardiorespiratory support is the recommended treatment for CRS.3 4 Institutes are advised to have tocilizumab readily available prior to commencement of CAR-T therapy since timely control of CRS by this agent is vital to prevent progression of cytokine storm. The mortality of CRS has now been much reduced with clinicians acquiring more experience in managing complications. Vigorous respiratory and circulatory support in an intensive care unit is also essential.7 Gardner et al3 reported that early intervention with tocilizumab and/or systemic steroid in patients with early signs of CRS did not negatively impact the anti-tumour potency of CD19 CAR-T therapy.
 
Our treatment outcome seems inferior to that reported in the literature in which 3-month remission rate was 81%; 73% at 6 months and 50% at 12 months.2 In our cohort, two patients (50%) remained in disease remission at 3 months whereas only one (25%) was in remission 9 months post–CAR-T therapy. However, the case number is small and comprised of patients with multiple relapses, three of whom developed relapse after haematopoietic stem cell transplantation and one who had very refractory disease. These patients are well known to be a group with one of the worst prognoses and most individuals do not survive long-term.
 
Some centres utilise CAR-T therapy as a bridge before transplantation as consolidative therapy for relapsed or refractory ALL. Unfortunately, in our four patients, three were at a very early post-transplant stage and would be unable to tolerate a second transplant. In other case scenarios, namely those with chemorefractory ALL, CAR-T therapy may play a role in bridging prior to haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Recent clinical trials have adopted alternative CAR-T therapy strategies such as bispecific or sequential CAR-T therapy that may have a more potent anti-leukaemic effect.8
 
In conclusion, early recognition of CRS and early intervention with vigorous cardiopulmonary support and timely initiation of anti–interleukin-6 receptor therapy can achieve good control of CRS. Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy is now offered as a new salvage therapy for patients with relapsed/refractory CD19+ B-cell ALL.
 
Author contribution
Concept or design: BS Li, CK Li.
Acquisition of data: FWT Cheng, GKS Lam, G Joynt, KL Hon.
Analysis or interpretation of data: FWT Cheng.
Drafting of the manuscript: FWT Cheng.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: CK Li.
 
Conflicts of interest
As an Editor of the Journal, KL Hon was not involved in the peer review process. The other authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided written informed consent for all treatments and procedures.
 
References
1. Cheng FW, Lam GK, Cheuk DK, et al. Overview of treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Hong Kong. HK J Paediatrics (New Series) 2019;24:184-91.
2. Maude SL, Laetsch TW, Buechner J, et al. Tisagenlecleucel in children and young adults with B-cell lymphoblastic leukemia. N Engl J Med 2018;378:439-48. Crossref
3. Gardner RA, Ceppi F, Rivers J, et al. Preemptive mitigation of CD19 CAR T-cell cytokine release syndrome without attenuation of anti-leukemic efficacy. Blood 2019;134:2149-58. Crossref
4. Neelapu SS. Managing the toxicities of CAR T-cell therapy. Hematol Oncol 2019;37:48-52. Crossref
5. Kantarjian H, Stein A, Gökbuget N, et al. Blinatumomab versus chemotherapy for advanced acute lymphoblastic leukemia. N Engl J Med 2017;376:836-47. Crossref
6. Crayne C, Cron RQ. Pediatric macrophage activation syndrome, recognizing the tip of the iceberg. Eur J Rheumatol 2019:1-8. Crossref
7. Hon KL, Luk MP, Fung WM, et al. Mortality, length of stay, bloodstream and respiratory viral infections in a paediatric intensive care unit. J Crit Care 2017;38:57-61. Crossref
8. Wang N, Hu X, Cao W, et al. Efficacy and safety of CAR19/22 T-cell cocktail therapy in patients with refractory/relapsed B-cell malignancies. Blood 2020;135:17-27. Crossref

Traumatic epidural pneumorrhachis: a case report

Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Traumatic epidural pneumorrhachis: a case report
YY Yang, MB, BS1; CB Chua, MD1; CW Hsu, MD, PhD1,2; KH Lee, MD, PhD1,2
1 Department of Emergency Medicine, E-Da Hospital, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
2 School of Medicine for International Students, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
 
Corresponding author: Dr KH Lee (peter1055@gmail.com)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
A 62-year-old man with no known systemic disease was brought to an emergency department by ambulance. He was found trapped in a car after colliding with a bridge and was found to have been driving under the influence of alcohol. On arrival, he complained of headache, neck pain, and chest pain. Physical examination revealed blood pressure of 133/71 mm Hg, heart rate 71 beats per minute, respiratory rate 22 breaths per minute, and oxygen saturation on air of 93%. He appeared intoxicated and was disorientated with a score of 13 (E3V4M6) on the Glasgow Coma Scale. His pupil size was 3.5 mm with bilateral normal reaction to light. A thorough neurological examination could not be performed but the patient was able to move all four limbs without limitation. Nonetheless a scalp laceration, upper back tenderness and left lower cervical crepitus were evident during palpation. Chest examination revealed bilateral equal breath sounds but some basal crackles and a left flank abrasion about 3 × 4 cm in size. Haemogram and biochemistry test results were within normal limits but serum alcohol level was elevated at 2.48 g/L. Chest radiography revealed a posterior fracture at the left fourth to sixth ribs and right ninth rib as well as left cervical subcutaneous emphysema that raised the suspicion of barotrauma associated with chest trauma (Fig 1). In view of the possibility of barotrauma and intracranial injuries, further evaluation with computed tomography (CT) of the brain and chest was arranged. The former was normal and the latter confirmed right first to second posterior ribs and left third to sixth posterior ribs fractures, as well as a small left-sided pneumothorax, bilateral pulmonary contusions, and pneumomediastinum. Notably, free air accumulated in the posterior epidural spaces of the cervical and thoracic spine as well as in the left retrospinal and paraspinal muscle layers with accompanying left second and third thoracic spine posterior neural arch fracture in cervical spine CT scan (Fig 2); these findings were compatible with epidural pneumorrhachis. Additionally, air was seen dissecting from the posterior neck into the epidural space. A neurosurgeon recommended close observation rather than surgical intervention for both the epidural pneumorrhachis and thoracic spine fracture. The patient was admitted to the thoracic surgical ward where he received conservative therapy for rib fractures, pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum including meperidine for pain control and oxygen therapy via a nasal cannula at 3 L/min. New chest radiographs were taken on day 4 after surgery. Cervical emphysema had mostly resolved but there was progression of pulmonary contusion with bilateral minimal pleural effusions. The patient also exhibited wheezing and dyspnoea that warranted inhaled bronchodilators and systemic steroid therapy. The patient was discharged on day 12 after surgery with symptom improvement; no neurological sequelae were noted during follow-up at the out-patient department.
 

Figure 1. (a) Chest radiograph anteroposterior view showing left cervical subcutaneous emphysema (white arrow) and posterior fracture of left fourth to sixth ribs and right ninth rib (black arrows) and deep sulcus sign (black arrowheads). (b) New chest radiograph anteroposterior view on day 4 showing near total resolution of left cervical subcutaneous emphysema (white arrow) but left lower pulmonary contusion with progression (black arrows). (c) Non-contrast thoracic computed tomography (CT) coronal view in lung window setting displaying left cervical subcutaneous emphysema (black arrowheads) and pneumomediastinum (black arrows). (d) Non-contrast thoracic CT axial view in bone window setting demonstrating pneumomediastinum (white arrows) and epidural pneumorrhachis (white arrowhead). (e) and (f) Non-contrast thoracic CT axial view in lung window setting demonstrating left-sided small pneumothorax (white arrows) and left pulmonary contusion (black arrowheads) and right minimal pleural effusion (black arrow)
 

Figure 2. (a) Cervical spine computed tomography (CT) scan sagittal view in soft tissue window setting revealing air distributed in the epidural space (epidural pneumorrachis) at C-spine C3, C5 to C7 level (white arrows), posterior cervical subcutaneous emphysema (white arrowheads) and (black arrow) pointing out air dissecting from posterior neck into the epidural space; free air within the epidural space is located at the corner or peripherally. (b) Cervical spine CT scan sagittal view in bone window setting demonstrating epidural pneumorrhachis at C-spine C3 and C6 level (white arrows), posterior cervical subcutaneous emphysema (white arrowheads) and (black arrows) pointing out air dissecting from posterior neck into epidural space at the level of T2. (c) Cervical CT coronal view revealing epidural pneumorrhachis (white arrows), left cervical subcutaneous emphysema (white arrowheads) and pneumomediastinum (black arrow). (d) and (e) Cervical spine CT scan axial view at C3 level and C5 level in soft tissue window setting demonstrating epidural pneumorrhachis (white arrows) and air within the prevertebral layer of deep cervical fascia, especially in the paraspinal portion (white arrowheads). (f) Non-contrast thoracic CT coronal view in bone window setting showing air entry through the fractured neural arch of the left thoracic spine T2-3 resulting in epidural pneumorrhachis (white arrows)
 
Discussion
Pneumorrachis (PRS) is characterised by the presence of air within the spinal canal and can be classified according to its location as subarachnoid or epidural PRS. Each is associated with different pathophysiological mechanisms and causes. It may result non-traumatically from spinal degeneration, gas-producing infections, or spontaneous pneumomediastinum in patients with asthma. Iatrogenic PRS may occur following a surgical procedure, epidural anaesthesia, or lumbar puncture but PRS following trauma is rare.1 Almost all types of PRS are found in association with air distribution in other compartments and cavities of the body. For example, PRS is observed in conjunction with pneumocephalus, pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, pneumopericardium, or subcutaneous emphysema. Pneumorrachis following trauma is rare and arises from the presence of air in the posterior mediastinum or retropharyngeal space dissecting along the fascial planes from the posterior mediastinum or retropharyngeal space through the neural foramina into the epidural space under the driving pressure of a pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum and low resistance of loose connective tissue.2
 
Epidural PRS has been reported to occur most commonly secondary to traumatic pneumomediastinum. Neurological deficits have not been reported in epidural PRS secondary to trauma. In contrast, traumatic subarachnoid PRS is almost always secondary to major trauma and skull bone fractures, and indicates severe injury and possible association with complications such as tension pneumocephalus or meningitis.3 Various neurological deficits, such as acute lumbar root compression, chronic radiculopathy, and cauda equina syndrome may occur. It is therefore important to identify air in the epidural space and subarachnoid space to enable prompt and adequate management.4 The possible mechanism of PRS in our patient was air entry into the epidural space because of pneumomediastinum, left-sided pneumothorax and subcutaneous emphysema extending through the fractured neural arch of the thoracic spines into the epidural space; these conditions fulfil the criteria for benign traumatic PRS. Criteria for a diagnosis of benign traumatic epidural PRS include substantial pneumomediastinum with extensive subcutaneous emphysema due to thoracic trauma.4 There may also be incidental findings of small amounts of epidural air demonstrable only on CT and unrelated to spinal trauma. “Benign” epidural PRS can be managed conservatively with spontaneous resolution of epidural air.4 Repeat or further neuroimaging studies are not routinely provided in cases of epidural PRS, provided there is no new or progressive neurological deficit. Three cases have been reported with complete resolution of PRS on follow-up CT scan after 4 to 14 days.5 6 7
 
The PRS is usually asymptomatic and an accidental finding on CT images while evaluating other severe or life-threatening torso injuries. Although CT is the gold standard for diagnosis, it is difficult to differentiate epidural and subarachnoid PRS. Nonetheless in the former, air is collected at the corner or peripherally unlike subarachnoid PRS where it is distributed more centrally in the canal based on normal anatomy. Magnetic resonance imaging or intrathecal contrast CT can distinguish intradural from extradural air.7 In most cases of epidural PRS, the air reabsorbs spontaneously without recurrence and the patient can be managed conservatively.1 In subarachnoid PRS, timely consultation with a neurosurgeon for decompression of nerve root injuries, tension pneumocephalus and exploratory surgery by a chest surgeon to detect severe thoracic trauma is vital. Impressively, Avci et al5 reported a case of complete resolution of subarachnoid PRS on the fifth day of admission with recovery of neurological deficit after chest tube insertion. They concluded that the negative pressure of the chest drain to withdraw the air supported the hypothesis of a one-way valve mechanism in which high pressure air travels through fascial layers but is unable to return. The routine use of antibiotic is not recommended in either type unless meningitis develops.1
 
Conclusion
Traumatic PRS is rare and an incidental radiological finding. Epidural PRS is often self-limiting with a good prognosis. Although most patients can be managed conservatively, prompt recognition of subarachnoid PRS with neurological deficits and other concurrent life-threatening torso injuries is vital.
 
Author contributions
Concept or design: KH Lee.
Acquisition of data: YY Yang.
Analysis or interpretation of data: CB Chua.
Drafting of the manuscript: YY Yang and KH Lee.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: CW Hsu.
 
All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
All authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Acknowledgement
We would like to extend our special thanks to Dr Cheng-yang Lee, Department of Medical Imaging, Chi Mei Medical Center, Tainan, Taiwan who provided insight and expertise on the image interpretation that greatly improved our manuscript.
 
Funding/support
All authors have no commercial association, such as consultancies, stock ownership or other equity interests or patent-licensing arrangements.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided written informed consent for all treatments and procedures.
 
References
1. Oertel MF, Korinth MC, Reinges MH, Krings T, Terbeck S, Gilsbach JM. Pathogenesis, diagnosis and management of pneumorrhachis. Eur Spine J 2006;15 Suppl 5:636-43. Crossref
2. Defouilloy C, Galy C, Lobjoie E, Strunski V, Ossart M. Epidurual pneumatosis: A benign complication of benign pneumomediastinum. Eur Respir J 1995;8:1806-7. Crossref
3. Goh BK, Yeo AW. Traumatic pneumorrhachis. J Trauma 2005;58:875-9. Crossref
4. Willing SJ. Epidural pneumatosis: a benign entity in trauma patients. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1991;12:345.
5. Avci İ, Başkurt O, Şirinoğlu D, Aydin MV. Rapid disappearance of pneumorrhachis after chest tube placement. Turk J Emerg Med 2019;19:146-8. Crossref
6. Kim SW, Seo HJ. Symptomatic epidural pneumorrhachis: a rare entity. J Korean Neurosurg Soc 2013;54:65-7. Crossref
7. Pfeifle C, Henkelmann R, von der Höh N, et al. Traumatic pneumorrhachis. Injury 2020;51:267-70. Crossref

Differentiating episodic ataxia type 2 from migraine: a case report

Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Differentiating episodic ataxia type 2 from migraine: a case report
HJ Wu, MRCPCH1; WL Lau, FHKAM (Paediatrics), FHKCPaed1; Tina YC Chan, MB, ChB2; Sammy PL Chen, FHKAM (Pathology), FHKCPath2; CH Ko, FHKAM (Paediatrics), FHKCPaed1
1 Department of Paediatrics, Caritas Medical Centre, Hong Kong
2 Department of Chemical Pathology, Princess Margaret Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr CH Ko (koch@ha.org.hk)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
A 17-year-old Chinese male was referred to Caritas Medical Centre, Hong Kong, in July 2015 for suspected migraine. His parents recalled onset of symptoms at age 11 years, at which time the child might suddenly hold onto rails for prolonged rest while climbing stairs, complaining of marked dizziness. The child sought no medical advice until age 17 years, when symptoms worsened to almost daily attacks. Each episode lasted from >10 minutes to a few hours and was usually precipitated by exercise or stress, but not by change in head position, neck movement, or fasting. During attacks, he could not walk along a straight line and experienced subjective generalised weakness. School biannual 9-minute run stamina assessment was prematurely aborted due to incapacitating dizziness. The dizziness was vertigo-like in nature and could be associated with bilateral temporal headache and nausea. He reported no tinnitus or dysarthria during attacks. No abnormal eye movement was observed by his parents during attacks. There was no history of aura, photophobia, chest pain, palpitation, numbness, visual impairment, hearing loss, tinnitus, or syncope. He functioned normally between attacks. Family history was negative for recurrent dizziness, migraine headache, or neurological disease. Neurological examination results were normal; there was no gaze-evoked nystagmus, cerebellar signs, or wide-based gait. Results of systemic examinations and laboratory tests, including complete blood picture, electrolytes, and thyroid function, were unremarkable. Electrocardiogram and computed tomography of the brain showed no abnormalities.
 
The patient was initially diagnosed with migraine variant but experienced no improvement after a 4-week trial of pizotifen prophylaxis. The predominantly exercise-induced prolonged vertigo spells, together with a relative paucity of pulsating lateralised headaches and lack of response to migraine treatment prompted the suspicion of episodic ataxia type 2 (EA2). Acetazolamide was started and the patient reported rapid clinical improvement with >50% reduction in frequency and severity of attacks. The patient was asked to temporarily withhold the medication; symptoms returned instantly but responded to resumption of acetazolamide. Genetic testing revealed a novel heterozygous variant NM_001127222.1 (CACNA1A): c.5067+1 G>A and was likely to be pathogenic for EA2. This mutation was not found in the targeted genetic analyses of the parents and is likely de novo. During follow-up examinations, the patient reported that he could complete school 9-minute runs.
 
Discussion
The most common type of episodic ataxia is EA2 (Table), with an estimated prevalence of <1 in 100 000.1 2 In EA2, the characteristic ataxic spells can last from >10 minutes to hours. Triggers include physical exertion, emotional stress, alcohol, and caffeine. Disease onset is generally between age 5 and 20 years. Patients are usually symptom-free between attacks, but there may be interictal nystagmus and gradual development of a progressive ataxia syndrome.1 Episodic ataxia type 2 is caused by mutations in the P/Q-type voltage-gated calcium channel gene CACNA1A. It encodes the pore-forming subunit of the P/Q-type voltage-gated calcium channel, widely expressed throughout the central nervous system, particularly on presynaptic terminals of cerebellar Purkinje cells and granule layer neurones. It plays a key role in synaptic transmission. More than 80 EA2-associated mutations on CACNA1A have been reported.1 3
 
Clinical diagnosis of EA2 is challenging; the symptoms are often interpreted by primary care physicians as being due to more common conditions such as migraine, epilepsy, and vestibular disorders. Overlapping features with allelic conditions of familial alternating hemiplegia and spinocerebellar type 6 may result in phenotype variability including dysarthria, diplopia, tinnitus, hemiplegia and headache.1 3 Headache may appear without accompanying symptoms. The periodic appearance of ostensibly functional symptoms is often misinterpreted as migrainous; notably, 50% of EA2 cases fulfil the International Headache Society criteria for migraine.3 In our patient, differentiating clues included identification of prolonged ataxic spells, exercise-induced attacks, and a lack of response to conventional migraine medications. Interictal ataxia and nystagmus, if present, may also help differentiate EA2 from migraine. The absence of positional dizziness and hearing loss helps differentiate EA2 from vestibular disorders.1 Electroencephalogram monitoring during attacks may help exclude epilepsy. As illustrated by our patient, dramatic improvement with acetazolamide may be diagnostic in doubtful cases. Notwithstanding the therapeutic response, paroxysmal exercise-induced movement disorders with acetazolamide responsiveness may also occur in glucose transporter defects such as GLUT1 deficiency. It is a rare metabolic defect of glucose uptake at the blood-brain barrier that may present as periodic movement disorder. The latter may have associated features of developmental delay, microcephaly, and carbohydrate responsiveness that are not present in EA2. The laboratory hallmark of GLUT1 deficiency is a low cerebrospinal fluid/blood glucose ratio <0.4.4 Episodic ataxia type 2 is differentiated from other hereditary episodic ataxias by the age of onset, spell duration, interictal nystagmus, and genetic locus (Table).1 2 4
 

Table. Clinical features of various types of episodic ataxias (EA)
 
Therapeutically, EA2 has a dramatic response to acetazolamide, with 50% to 75% of patients reporting improvement in episode severity and frequency at doses from 250 to 1000 mg daily.1 Dose escalation is often limited by side-effects of paraesthesia, nephrocalcinosis, fatigability and hyperhidrosis.1 5 If acetazolamide is not tolerated, the potassium channel blocker 4-aminopyridine may improve symptoms. The mechanism is not fully understood; in animal models it has been shown to prolong the action potentials and restore the diminished precision of pacemaking in Purkinje cells.5
 
In summary, EA2 is a rare neurological disorder that can be misdiagnosed as migraine, epilepsy, or vestibular disorders, particularly in young children who cannot give a detailed history. Heightened physician awareness and early treatment can significantly improve patient quality of life.
 
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the concept or design of the study, acquisition of the data, analysis or interpretation of the data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
All authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient consented to publication of this article in a peer-reviewed journal.
 
References
1. Guterman EL, Yurgionas B, Nelson AB. Pearls & Oy-sters: Episodic ataxia type 2 case report and review of the literature. Neurology 2016;86:239-41. Crossref
2. Jen JC, Graves TD, Hess EJ, et al. Primary episodic ataxias: diagnosis, pathogenesis and treatment. Brain 2007;130:2484-93. Crossref
3. Spillane J, Kullmann DM, Hanna MG. Genetic neurological channelopathies: molecular genetics and clinical phenotypes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2016;87:37-48.
4. Kipfer S, Strupp M. The clinical spectrum of autosomal-dominant episodic ataxias. Mov Disord Clin Pract 2014;1:285-90. Crossref
5. Kalla R, Teufel J, Feil K, Muth C, Strupp M. Update on the pharmacotherapy of cerebellar and central vestibular disorders. J Neurol 2016;263 Suppl 1:S24-9. Crossref

Autochthonous Emergomyces pasteurianus pneumonia in an immunocompromised patient in Hong Kong: a case report

Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Autochthonous Emergomyces pasteurianus pneumonia in an immunocompromised patient in Hong Kong: a case report
KK Chik, FHKPath, FHKPaed; WK To, FHKPath
Department of Pathology (Clinical Infection and Microbiology), Princess Margaret Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr KK Chik (chikkk@ha.org.hk)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case
A 61-year-old man with end-stage renal failure secondary to immunoglobulin A nephropathy underwent a cadaveric kidney transplant. His post-transplantation course was uneventful until he had very poor compliance to the immunosuppressants since May 2017 and admitted that he had stopped all immunosuppressants in February 2018. He developed acute antibody-mediated graft rejection in May 2018. His medications were adjusted, tacrolimus 4 mg/day, mycophenolate 360 mg twice daily and prednisolone were started. He developed a chest infection in October 2018. He denied any travel history or significant contact history. On physical examination he had cushingoid features and right-sided crepitation. Investigations revealed a low white cell count (1.8 × 109/L) and neutrophil count (0.7 × 109/L). Chest X-ray showed right basal infiltrates (Fig 1a). Blood and sputum for bacterial culture was negative, as was sputum for acid-fast bacilli. The patient’s condition deteriorated despite use of vancomycin, meropenem, azithromycin, and fluconazole. Computed tomography of the thorax revealed extensive collapse and consolidation over the right lower lobe and bilateral pleural effusions (Fig 1b). Bronchoscopy and transbronchial lung biopsy showed granulomatous inflammation, with granular eosinophilic material and narrow-based small budding yeasts grouped in clusters inside macrophages in the alveolar spaces. Both mucicarmine staining and immunohistochemical staining for Pneumocystis, Cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus were negative (Fig 1d-g). In view of the histopathological findings, bronchoalveolar lavage was sent for fungal culture. After 7 days of incubation at 25°C, a tiny colony of mould was seen. 21 Days later, there was a white-coloured mould colony with a velvety texture, wrinkled surface, acquired splits on the surface with no diffusible pigment (Fig 2a and b). Lactophenol cotton blue stain of the wet mount revealed a classic floret pattern (Fig 2c and d). Subculture was performed at 35°C. After 10 days of incubation at 35°C, a 25-mm-diameter yeast colony was evident. Based on the characteristic growth morphology, infection with the thermally dimorphic fungus was established. Subsequent molecular genetic analysis by sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer and D1/D2 regions was performed and identified Emergomyces pasteurianus, a rare thermally dimorphic fungus not previously reported in our locality. Liposomal amphotericin B was commenced and continued for 8 weeks. The patient responded well both clinically and radiologically (Fig 1c) and treatment was switched to oral voriconazole 200 mg twice daily. The patient succumbed to his medical illness 10 weeks after being discharged home.
 

Figure 1. (a) Initial chest X-ray on admission. (b) Computed tomographic thorax scan on day 16 after admission. (c) Chest X-ray after 2 weeks of antifungal therapy. (d) Gomori methenamine silver stain, ×400, showing small yeasts of 3-4 μm. (e) Haematoxylin and eosin stain, ×650, showing intracellular yeasts. (f) Haematoxylin and eosin stain, ×400, showing intracellular yeasts. (g) Gomori methenamine silver stain, ×650
 

Figure 2. (a) Colonies on Sabouraud agar after 21 days incubation at 25°C. (b) Colonies on chocolate agar at day 21 of incubation at 25°C. (c, d) Lactophenol cotton blue staining of the mould phase incubated at 25°C
 
Discussion
Thermally dimorphic fungal pathogens cause a significant human disease but are rarely reported in our locality with the exception of Talaromyces (Penicillium) marneffei. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of Emergomyces infection in Hong Kong. Emergomyces shares the characteristics of other thermally dimorphic fungi: filamentous forms at 25°C that becomes an invasive yeast-like form at 35°C.1 Emergomyces pasteurianus was previously known as Emmonsia pasteuriana. Emmonsia species are ubiquitous, soil-dwelling saprophytic fungi. Species such as Emmonsia crescens and Emmonsia parva may rarely cause adiaspiromycosis in rodents and humans.2 Recently, Emergomyces has been reclassified as a new genus within the family Ajellomycetaceae. Emergomyces and Emmonsia have significant differences in microbiology, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and treatment outcomes. Microbiologically, Emergomyces is a thermally dimorphic fungus while Emmonsia does not undergo mould-to-yeast conversion at 37°C. Emmonsia is rarely cultivated from clinical specimens. Human infection with Emmonsia is relatively rare in clinical practice2 but Emergomyces can cause fatal and disseminated human infection and appropriate antifungal therapy is essential.
 
At the time of this report, five Emergomyces species are described. These species differ in geographic distribution. Es pasteurianus has been reported in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Emergomyces canadensis has been reported in Canada and the United States. Emergomyces africanus has been reported in South Africa, Emergomyces orientalis in China, and Emergomyces europaeus in Germany. The natural reservoir of Emergomyces is soil. Our patient presumably acquired the infection via inhalation of conidia in Hong Kong since he had no travel history outside of the region.
 
Emergomycosis is a multi-system disease. According to case reports, patients most often present with fever, widespread skin lesions, weight loss, and pulmonary disease.3 4 The diagnosis can be missed due to the slow-growing nature of the fungus. Histological examination of tissues can help diagnose the disease but on its own does not distinguish infection from other dimorphic fungi. Molecular diagnosis plays an important role in microbiological investigation. Using broad-range fungal polymerase chain reaction to sequence D2 large-subunit rDNA gene can help to confirm the diagnosis in a rapid, sensitive, and specific way.
 
There are no treatment guidelines for patients with emergomycosis. Guidelines for blastomycosis and histoplasmosis recommend liposomal amphotericin B as initial therapy followed by itraconazole (or other newer azole). Our patient responded to liposomal amphotericin B and oral voriconazole but passed away due to his medical disease.
 
More patients are now rendered immunosuppressed by advances in treatment for a variety of diseases. Clinicians and microbiologists should be aware of the presence of rare invasive fungal infections among these susceptible patients. Molecular techniques such as internal transcribed spacer polymerase chain reaction and sequencing can aid early and accurate identification of these rare fungal pathogens.
 
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the concept or design of the study, acquisition of the data, analysis or interpretation of the data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
 
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank pathologist Dr WL Lam for providing the histopathology clinical photos and nephrologist Dr SK Fung and Dr HL Tang for providing clinical information.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
This case report was approved by the Hospital Authority Kowloon West Cluster Research Ethics Committee (Ref KW/ EX-19-063(137-04)).
 
References
1. Gast KB, van der Hoeven A, de Boer MG, et al. Two cases of Emergomyces pasteurianus infection in immunocompromised patients in the Netherlands. Med Mycol Case Rep 2019;24:5-8. Crossref
2. Koneru H, Penupolu S. Pulmonary adiaspiromycosis: an emerging fungal infection. Chest 2017;152 Suppl:A162. Crossref
3. Schwartz IS, Sanche S, Wiederhold NP, Patterson TF, Sigler L. Emergomyces canadensis, a dimorphic fungus causing fatal systemic human disease in North America. Emerg Infect Dis 2018;24:758-61. Crossref
4. Schwartz IS, Maphanga TG, Govender NP. Emergomyces: a new genus of dimorphic fungal pathogens causing disseminated disease among immunocompromised persons globally. Curr Fungal Infect Rep 2018;12:44-50. Crossref

Importance of allergological evaluation and skin testing for severe cutaneous adverse reactions: a case report

Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Importance of allergological evaluation and skin testing for severe cutaneous adverse reactions: a case report
Philip H Li, MRCP (UK), FHKCP, Jane CY Wong, MB, BS, MRCP (UK), CS Lau, MD, FRCP
Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr Philip H Li (liphilip@hku.hk)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
This is the first case of acute generalised exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP) due to amoxicillin reported in Hong Kong, confirmed by complete in vivo and in vitro allergological investigations. It is vital to highlight the importance of an appropriate and thorough drug allergy evaluation for patients with a suspected causative agent.
 
A 24-year-old man was admitted in January 2016 to his local hospital with knee pain. Arthrocentesis was performed and empirical intravenous amoxicillin-clavulanate prescribed for suspected septic arthritis. He was also prescribed Hartmann’s solution, paracetamol, tramadol, chlorpheniramine, metoclopramide, and zopiclone during his in-patient stay. A few hours later he developed fever and generalised pustulosis. There was no mucosal involvement or skin necrosis. Culture of the pustules was negative and he declined skin biopsy. However, his fever persisted and pustulosis began to worsen despite continuation of amoxicillin-clavulanate. After almost 1 week, the patient was discharged against medical advice and no other investigations were ordered. His fever subsided and rash improved without treatment. He was referred to our division 2 weeks after discharge for persistent knee pain. Upon examination, there were residual pustules with desquamation and plaques over the trunk and limbs. A diagnosis of AGEP likely to amoxicillin and/or clavulanate was suspected, agreed on review by our dermatologist. However, other possible culprits could not be excluded as he was prescribed multiple medications at the time.
 
He was reviewed 2 months later after improvement of his skin condition. He consented to patch testing (PT) and intradermal testing (IDT) on his back. The PT was performed using a Finn Chamber (SmartPractice, Phoenix [AZ], United States) with amoxicillin at 10% (2 mg/mL) and 1% (0.2 mg/mL) dilutions in water. The IDT was performed with amoxicillin 20 mg/mL. Immediate PT and IDT readings were negative after 20 minutes. A delayed IDT reading at 48 hours was positive with pustule formation (Fig 1). The patient declined skin biopsy and culture of the pustule was negative. The PT was strongly positive (++) at D2 and D4 with a crescendo effect for amoxicillin at both 10% and 1% dilutions (Fig 2). Lymphocyte transformation test showed consistent findings, with strong positive results for amoxicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanate. The patient was advised to avoid penicillins prior to further allergological testing. He was reassured that other concomitant medications were safe. He tolerated paracetamol, tramadol, chlorpheniramine, and metoclopramide thereafter on separate occasions with no adverse effects.
 

Figure 1. Positive delayed intradermal test to amoxicillin (20 mg/mL) and with pustule formation (with uncovered patch test adjacent)
 

Figure 2. Positive (++) patch test to amoxicillin (10% and 1% dilutions in aq.) on D4
 
Discussion
Acute generalised exanthematous pustulosis is a severe cutaneous adverse reaction (SCAR) that manifests with generalised sterile pustules, often mistaken for infection with subsequent inappropriate treatment. Symptoms classically appear within hours, especially in antibiotic-triggered reactions.1 Differential diagnoses of pustular skin eruptions should be considered including pustular psoriasis, hypersensitivity syndrome reaction with pustulation, and subcorneal pustular dermatosis. However, given the clear chronological administration timeline of a suspected drug, AGEP should remain the prime differential diagnosis. Once a diagnosis of SCAR is suspected, possible causative medications should be immediately withheld. After acute management, allergological evaluation is required to identify the causative drug and prevent unnecessary avoidance of other (often multiple) medications or inadvertent re-exposure (to misidentified culprits) in future. As a type IV hypersensitivity reaction, PT and/or IDT can confirm suspected drugs as the cause of AGEP and other SCARs.2 A lymphocyte transformation test may be useful but is generally available only in research institutes.3 Lymphocyte transformation testing is highly specific, with near 100% specificity for beta-lactams.4 Physicians are reminded of the importance of comprehensive allergological evaluation to confirm suspected aetiologies in cases of SCAR.
 
Author contributions
Concept or design: PH Li.
Acquisition of data: PH Li.
Analysis or interpretation of data: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: All authors.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.
 
All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
All authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Ms Mei-shan Lui (RN) for her aid with patch testing and outstanding service to patient care.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient consented to this publication.
 
References
1. Alvarado SA, Muñoz-Mendoza D, Bahna SL. High-risk drug rashes. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2018;121:552- 60. Crossref
2. Barbaud A, Gonçalo M, Bruynzeel D, Bircher A, European Society of Contact Dermatitis. Guidelines for performing skin tests with drugs in the investigation of cutaneous adverse drug reactions. Contact Dermatitis 2001;45:321-8. Crossref
3. Mayorga C, Celik G, Rouzaire P, et al. In vitro tests for drug hypersensitivity reactions: an ENDA/EAACI Drug Allergy Interest Group position paper. Allergy 2016;71:1103-34. Crossref
4. Doña I, Torres MJ, Montañez MI, Fernández TD. In vitro diagnostic testing for antibiotic allergy. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res 2017;9:288-98. Crossref

Immune-mediated necrotising myopathy is a rare statin-associated adverse effect: a case report

Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Immune-mediated necrotising myopathy is a rare statin-associated adverse effect: a case report
KF Lee, FRCP, FHKAM (Medicine); Maria WH Mak, MRCP, FHKAM (Medicine); Virginia WN Lao, MRCP, FHKAM (Medicine); Helen LK Yip, MRCP, FHKAM (Medicine); WY Lau, MRCP, FHKAM (Medicine); Victor TL Wong, MRCP, FHKAM (Medicine)
Department of Medicine and Geriatrics, Kwong Wah Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr KF Lee (leekf1@ha.org.hk)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
The patient was a 60-year-old woman with a 14-year history of type 2 diabetes mellitus and dyslipidaemia with a complication of background diabetic retinopathy. In December 2016, during a routine follow-up examination, the patient was found to have asymptomatic 5-fold rise in liver aminotransferases. The patient’s glycosylated haemoglobin level was 8.5% and her low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) level was 2.0 nmol/L. She was taking metformin 500 mg 3 times daily, gliclazide 160 mg and vildagliptin 50 mg twice daily, and atorvastatin 20 mg once daily. In view of the possibility of statin-related hepatotoxicity, atorvastatin was withheld after 22 months of treatment. However, transaminitis persisted over the following 6 months after exclusion of viral hepatitis and any structural abnormality. After 2 months, the patient complained of bilateral thigh weakness (Medical Research Council grade 4/5) and myalgia that prevented her from climbing stairs. Blood tests revealed elevated levels of creatinine kinase (CK) [5426 IU/L; normal range, 26-192 IU/L], alanine aminotransferase (294 IU/L; normal range, <47 IU/L), aspartate aminotransferase (164 IU/L; normal range, <36 IU/L), and lactate dehydrogenase (722 IU/L; normal range, 110-210 IU/L). Other inflammatory markers for myositis including anti-Jo-1 antibodies were normal. Urine for myoglobulin was negative and renal function was normal. With persistent clinical and biochemical abnormalities 9 months after statin cessation and no history of potential drug or health products that might induce myositis, immune-mediated necrotising myopathy (IMNM) associated with statins was suspected. Electromyography suggested active myopathic changes while muscle biopsy revealed atrophy of multiple muscle fibres, necrosis and regeneration without inflammatory infiltrates. Diagnosis was finally confirmed following an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay by a marked elevation of anti–3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (anti-HMGCR) autoantibody to >200 IU/mL (normal range, <20 IU/mL). Considering her reasonable glycaemic control, monotherapy with intravenous immune globulin (IVIG) was initiated at a rate of 2 g per kilogram body weight per month. Muscle power increased and CK decreased (Fig) so IVIG was stopped after 6 months. Nonetheless her muscle weakness worsened and extended to involve the upper limbs as well as her ability to swallow, and CK rose from 3200 IU/L to almost 8000 IU/L after 2 months. High-dose glucocorticoids (intravenous methylprednisolone 500 mg/day for 3 days followed by oral prednisolone 45 mg/day) and cyclosporin were started. A monthly IVIG infusion was also added in the initial 2 months to enhance the therapeutic effect for her severe myopathy. After 4 months, her weakness improved and CK dropped below 1000 IU/L. Owing to deteriorating glycaemic control (glycosylated haemoglobin level deteriorated to 9.1%) and acute glaucoma, early tapering of glucocorticoid dose was considered. However, serum CK level returned to 2000 IU/L when prednisolone dose was weaned down to 7.5 mg daily, although she retained full muscle power. Another steroid-sparing agent, either methotrexate or rituximab, was considered.
 

Figure. Clinical course and response to different modalities of treatment in a patient with immune mediated necrotising myopathy associated with statin use
 
Discussion
Statins are well-proven lipid-lowering drugs that reduce LDL-C and hence cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, in both primary and secondary prevention. Their use is recommended in a wide range of patients and high intensity therapy (LDL-C reduction ≥50%) is indicated in a significant proportion.1
 
Despite their acceptable side-effect profile, about 10% of patients report statin-associated muscle symptoms (SAMS) such as myalgia and/or weakness.2 Toxic myopathy, defined as SAMS with marked elevation (>10 times the upper limit of normal) of CK, occurs in approximately 1 in 10 000 patients treated with statins per year. Typically, this condition remits spontaneously with cessation of statin use. On the contrary, statin-associated IMNM, a rarer adverse effect with an estimated occurrence of 2 to 3 per 100 000 treated patients, is unlikely to be resolved by statin withdrawal, despite having similar SAMS and muscle enzyme increment.3 The IMNM was only suspected in our case 9 months after cessation of statin therapy, probably due to an initial lack of SAMS and misinterpretation that the elevated aminotransferases originated from the liver rather than muscle. It is important to also check CK in asymptomatic statin users with elevated aminotransferase levels to enable early diagnosis of statin-associated myopathy.
 
The IMNM is now recognised as a distinct form of myositis, usually presenting with symmetrical proximal arm or leg weakness with marked elevation of CK (>10 times the upper limit of normal), muscle oedema, and atrophy on magnetic resonance imaging. In addition, muscle cell necrosis and regeneration along with minimal inflammatory infiltrates in muscle biopsy is evident and irritable myopathy on electromyography.3 Our patient had clinical features compatible with most of these symptoms. Unlike other SAMS phenotypes, there are no identifiable risk factors such as lipophilic (vs hydrophilic) statins, high-dose statins, old age, female gender, small body frame, liver or renal failure, and concomitant medications metabolised by the same hepatic P450 isoforms2 in statin-associated IMNM (Table). The detection of anti-HMGCR autoantibody in 2010 revolutionised the pathophysiology, diagnosis, disease classification, and treatment of this disease entity. This autoantibody detected by means of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay is both sensitive and specific; it has been detected in 24 of 26 patients (92%) with a clinical presentation compatible with statin-associated IMNM although it has not been detected in statin-treated patients who do not have SAMS or self-limiting toxic myopathy. The overall specificity of the commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for anti-HMGCR autoantibody may be as high as 99.3%.4 Nevertheless anti-HMGCR autoantibodies can also be detected in patients with IMNM who have an underlying malignancy or who are statin-naïve, particularly with more widespread use of anti-HMGCR autoantibody in patients with myopathy. With the detection of another autoantibody against a signal recognition particle, in 2017 the European Neuromuscular Centre classified IMNM into three subtypes: anti–signal recognition particle myopathy, anti-HMGCR myopathy and antibody-negative IMNM.3 Although these subtypes share similar clinical features to those mentioned above, they differ in environmental risk factors, genetic risk factors, cancer risks, extra-muscular manifestations, and response to different treatment modalities and prognoses.
 
Although spontaneous improvement after statin cessation has been reported in case studies, most patients with this condition require one to two immunosuppressive agents, usually in the form of high-dose glucocorticoids plus one of the following; methotrexate, azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil or cyclosporine, for initial disease control.4 5 The IVIG has also been used successfully as first-line monotherapy and it may be considered in those with pre-existing diabetes, as in our patient.6 However, incomplete normalisation of CK and the need for a prolonged course of treatment suggests its inability to completely abolish the pathophysiological process that causes muscle damage. This was illustrated in our patient with a rebound in CK level 2 months after completion of a 6-month course of IVIG monotherapy. Rather, her condition stabilised following treatment with two immunosuppressants, prednisolone and cyclosporine, although her anti-glycaemic treatment needed to be intensified. Similar to the clinical course of other reported series, her condition relapsed upon weaning of glucocorticoid dosage.7 Apart from escalation of steroid dosage, other steroid sparing agents may need to be considered. Rituximab has emerged as a promising rescue agent in this situation.8 Lastly, as statin is a known trigger of anti-HMGCR autoantibody, re-challenge with any statin should be avoided and an alternative cholesterol-lowering agent such as ezetimibe or PCSK9 inhibitors can be considered.9
 
In conclusion, IMNM can occur rarely in patients who present with SAMS. Unlike toxic myopathy, clinical and biochemical abnormalities persist upon statin withdrawal and immunosuppressants are usually required for disease control.
 
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the concept or design of the study, acquisition of the data, analysis or interpretation of the data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
All authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided written informed consent for all treatments and procedures.
 
References
1. Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL, et al. 2018 AHA/ ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline on the Management of Blood Cholesterol: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation 2019;139:e1082-143. Crossref
2. Ward NC, Watts GF, Eckel RH. Statin toxicity. Circ Res 2019;124:328-50. Crossref
3. Pinal-Fernandez I, Casal-Dominguez M, Mammen AL. Immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2018;20:21. Crossref
4. Mammen AL. Statin-associated autoimmune myopathy. N Engl J Med 2016;374:664-9. Crossref
5. Tiniakou E, Christopher-Stine L. Immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy associated with statins: history and recent developments. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2017;29:604- 11. Crossref
6. Mammen AL, Tiniakou E. Intravenous immune globulin for statin-triggered autoimmune myopathy. N Engl J Med 2015;373:1680-2. Crossref
7. Ramanathan S, Langguth D, Hardy TA, et al. Clinical course and treatment of anti-HMGCR antibody– associated necrotizing autoimmune myopathy. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2015;2:e96. Crossref
8. Allenbach Y, Mammen AL, Benveniste O, Stenzel W; Immune-Mediated Necrotizing Myopathies Working Group. 224th ENMC International Workshop: Clinicosero- pathological classification of immune-mediated necrotizing myopathies Zandvoort, The Netherlands, 14-16 October 2016. Neuromuscul Disord 2018;28:87-99. Crossref
9. Albayda J, Christopher-Stine L. Identifying statinassociated autoimmune necrotizing myopathy. Cleve Clin J Med 2014;81:736-41. Crossref

Parapharyngeal space lipoma: a case report

Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Parapharyngeal space lipoma: a case report
Herbert SH Lee, MB, ChB (CUHK); CM Ngai, MB, BS, FHKAM (Otorhinolaryngology)
Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Yan Chai Hospital, Kowloon West Cluster, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr Herbert SH Lee (herbertshlee@link.cuhk.edu.hk)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Introduction
Parapharyngeal space (PPS) tumours account for only around 0.5% of tumours in the head and neck region.1 Most are benign in nature and salivary in origin.2 Lipomas in the PPS are rare, despite being the most common benign mesenchymal head and neck tumour.3 4 Other lesions that may be encountered in this area include neurogenic tumours, chemodectomas, branchial cysts, and metastatic lesions.
 
Case report
A middle-aged woman first presented to the outpatient clinic in April 2019 with a 3-year history of left painless neck mass, with gradual growth but no other symptoms. Physical examination revealed a soft neck mass of around 4 to 5 cm in diameter over the left level III region. Other ear, nose and throat examinations, including flexible laryngoscopy, were unremarkable.
 
Initial fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) was inadequate for diagnosis. A second FNAC revealed sparse adipose tissue. Ultrasound showed a 2.68×1.52×2.41 cm deeply located hypoechoic lesion on the left submandibular region, with internal striations resembling those of subcutaneous fat. No vascularity was detected on colour Doppler scan. Oval lymph nodes with preserved fatty hilum were seen at bilateral upper cervical regions. They all had a sub-centimetre short axis, likely reactive in nature. The overall sonographic impression was of lipoma. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a 3.6×4.9×9.2 cm (anteroposterior × transverse × craniocaudal planes) well-circumscribed, lobulated mass in the left PPS. The lesion was of fat signal intensity, with faint fluffy internal enhancing septation but no internal enhancing solid nodule seen, nor frank invasion into the surrounding structures (Fig 1a). The lesion extended from the level of C1 to C7 (Fig 1b), bulging medially onto the left side of the oropharynx and displacing the left carotid space content posterolaterally (Fig 1c). The MRI findings were suggestive of a lipomatous lesion. The overall clinical picture was compatible with a parapharyngeal lipoma. Although parapharyngeal lipoma is a benign lesion, gradual growth and consequent mass effects can occur. As the patient was only middle-aged, complications such as dysphagia, shortness of breath, and obstructive sleep apnoea were possible if the tumour was allowed to continue growing. After explaining to the patient the clinical, FNAC and imaging findings, as well as potential complications arising from the tumour, she was keen to undergo surgical excision.
 

Figure 1. (a) Coronal magnetic resonance image showing a mass lesion of fat signal intensity in the left parapharyngeal space. (b) Sagittal magnetic resonance image showing the extent of the lesion from C1 to C7. (c) Axial magnetic resonance image showing displacement of the oropharynx and left carotid space by the lesion
 
During out-patient preoperative assessment in July 2019, the patient complained of recent dull vague pain in the throat. Physical examination revealed the hyoid bone to be deviated to the right. Subsequent flexible laryngoscopy demonstrated a swelling on the left lateral oropharyngeal wall.
 
Surgery under general anaesthesia was performed in August 2019 and the sternocleidomastoid muscle was dissected from the lipoma. The lipoma was subsequently dissected from the internal jugular vein and the carotid artery and completely excised (Fig 2). Haemostasis was achieved and a drain inserted prior to skin closure. The entire operation took about 2 hours with intra-operative blood loss of around 50 mL. The patient was discharged 5 days later with no complications noted.
 

Figure 2. (a) Intra-operative photograph showing the lipoma. (b) Photograph of the excised parapharyngeal lipoma
 
At postoperative follow-up 9 days later the patient was clinically well with no active complaints. She was tolerating an oral diet and the wound had healed well. Flexible laryngoscopy showed no more oropharyngeal wall swelling. Pathology results confirmed that the left parapharyngeal lesion was a lipoma and the excised left level III lymph node had no evidence of malignancy.
 
Discussion
The PPS is anatomically described as an inverted pyramid with the apex and the base at the greater cornu of the hyoid and the skull base, respectively. The posterior boundary is the vertebral column and paravertebral muscles. Anteriorly, it is limited by the junction of pterygoid fascia to the buccinator muscle fascia, the pterygomandibular raphe, and the submandibular gland. The medial boundary is formed by the superior constrictor muscle and the tonsillar fossa. The lateral boundary is formed by the medial pterygoid muscle, the ramus of mandible, parotid gland, and the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. The PPS can be subdivided into pre-styloid and post-styloid compartments by the styloid process. The post-styloid compartment consists of several vital structures including the 9th to 11th cranial nerves, internal carotid artery, internal jugular vein, and cervical sympathetic trunk. The pre-styloid compartment may contain the deep lobe of the parotid gland or accessory salivary tissues, as well as lymph nodes. A lipoma found in the pre-styloid compartment of the PPS is indeed very rare.
 
A lipoma is an encapsulated, benign, subcutaneous, and submucosal tumour composed of mature adipose tissue cells. Most PPS lipomas grow insidiously and cause symptoms only when exerting mass effects as seen in any other benign tumours, for example, dysphagia, shortness of breath, and obstructive sleep apnoea. Occasionally, due to obstruction of the Eustachian tube by the tumour, otitis media with effusion and conductive hearing loss may occur. Hoarseness and tongue muscle weakness resulting from compression of the lower cranial nerves, as well as Horner’s syndrome and trismus owing to involvement of the cervical sympathetic trunk and medial pterygoid respectively are all suggestive of malignancy.
 
Diagnostic FNAC is often technically difficult as the PPS lipoma is deep-seated. Most of the time, imaging such as computed tomography (CT) and MRI has significant diagnostic significance. On computed tomography scan, a lipoma is revealed as a homogenous and hypodense mass with no enhancement. In contrast, MRI scan is the most ideal imaging modality due to its excellent delineation of soft tissue and multiplanar capability. Lipomas appear as hyperintense on T1- and T2-weighted sequences with internal septations. T1-weighted sequences with fat suppression demonstrate even more obvious contrast with the surrounding soft tissues.
 
Surgical excision is the treatment of choice. The surgical approach depends on tumour size, location, and relationship to major vessels. A transcervical approach is most widely applied and is particularly suitable for smaller PPS tumours. Some literature suggests a transcervical approach for tumours as large as 8 cm,5 6 but there is no consensus on the cut-off size. Our case demonstrates that the transcervical approach can achieve good exposure for a parapharyngeal tumour extending from level C1 to C7, 9.2 cm at its greatest dimension. Advantages of a transcervical approach include adequate exposure of vital structures and a lower risk of damage to the facial nerves. A transcervical approach is combined with a transmandibular approach when dealing with larger lesions involving the skull base and the aforementioned lower cranial nerves for better exposure, while an infratemporal approach is used when access to the lateral part of the skull base is necessary. A transoral approach, which was used in the past, is now out of favour as the exposure offered by this route is very poor. There is also a higher risk of vascular and neural injury that makes this approach unsafe.
 
Conclusion
Parapharyngeal space lipomas are rarely seen in our daily practice but deserve more of our attention since they are easily missed in the early stages and seen as a non-specific neck mass as in this case. Magnetic resonance imaging scan is useful not only in terms of diagnostic superiority, but also for preoperative planning. A transcervical approach is most commonly adopted for PPS tumours as it is associated with lower surgical risk by providing excellent exposure of vital neurovascular structures.
 
Author contributions
Concept or design: CM Ngai.
Acquisition of data: HSH Lee.
Analysis or interpretation of data: HSH Lee.
Drafting of the manuscript: HSH Lee.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: CM Ngai.
 
All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
All authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The study was conducted in accordance with guidelines by the Kowloon West Cluster ethics committee. Informed consent was obtained from the patient.
 
References
1. Carrau RL, Johnson JT, Myers EN. Management of tumors of the parapharyngeal space. Oncology (Williston Park) 1997;11:633-40.
2. Batsakis JG, Sneige N. Parapharyngeal and retropharyngeal space diseases. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1989;98:320-1. Crossref
3. Abdullah BJ, Liam CK, Kaur H, Mathew KM. Parapharyngeal space lipoma causing sleep apnoea. Br J Radiol 1997;70:1063-5. Crossref
4. Ulku CH, Uyar Y. Parapharyngeal lipoma extending to skull base: a case report and review of the literature. Skull Base 2004;14:121-5. Crossref
5. Smith JC, Snyderman CH, Kassam AB. Giant parapharyngeal space lipoma: case report and surgical approach. Skull Base 2002;12:215-20. Crossref
6. Carrau RL, Myers EN, Johnson JT. Management of tumors arising in the parapharyngeal space. Laryngoscope 1990;100:583-9. Crossref

Indocyanine green fluorescence-guided pulmonary wedge resection in a child: a case report

© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Indocyanine green fluorescence-guided pulmonary wedge resection in a child: a case report
CH Fung, MB, BS, MRCS; CT Lau, MB, BS, FRCS; Kenneth KY Wong, PhD, FRCS
Department of Surgery, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr CH Fung (fungchiheng@gmail.com)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
Tissue diagnosis of pulmonary nodules of an undetermined nature can be achieved with thoracoscopic wedge resection. However, localisation of a lesion during surgery can be technically demanding, especially for small deep-seated lesions. We report our technique of indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescence-guided pulmonary wedge resection in a child.
 
A 4-year-old boy presented with pyrexia of unknown origin associated with cough for 2 weeks. Extensive septic workup including sputum culture, chest X-ray, nasopharyngeal aspirate and urine culture were unremarkable. Mantoux test was positive. Computed tomographic (CT) scan of the thorax to look for occult chest infection showed features suggestive of pulmonary tuberculosis and a 6-mm nodule over the apical segment of the left lower lobe. He completed a 6-month course of antitubercular medication but reassessment scan after 9 months showed a persistent left lower lobe pulmonary nodule and he was referred to our surgical unit for tissue diagnosis.
 
The patient underwent CT-guided localisation of the pulmonary nodule under general anaesthesia 1 hour prior to thoracoscopic wedge resection. The pulmonary nodule was identified at the apical segment of the left lower lobe, 1.3 cm from the pleural surface (Fig 1). An 18-gauge guiding needle was inserted by the radiologist to the lesion under CT guidance. Methylene blue (0.5 mL) and ICG (0.5 mL) were injected around the lesion via the guiding needle. A hookwire was also placed for localisation as safety backup and adjunct to ICG. The patient was then transferred back to the operating theatre. The target lesion was identified thoracoscopically with guidance of methylene blue dye and ICG fluorescence (KARL STORZ OPAL1®). Wedge resection of the target lesion was performed with Endo GIA™ Ultra Universal 30-mm staplers (Medtronic). Complete excision was confirmed by absence of fluorescence in the remaining left lower lobe on ICG fluorescence imaging (Fig 2). The use of ICG fluorescence enhanced intra-operative localisation of the small pulmonary nodule and facilitated a minimally invasive operation. The patient made an uneventful recovery and was discharged 2 days after surgery. Histology of the wedge-resected specimen confirmed complete excision and showed granulomatous inflammation with focal necrosis and no evidence of malignancy. The patient had resumed full activity at follow-up 1 week after surgery.
 

Figure 1. Preoperative coronal computed tomography of thorax showing the undetermined lesion (arrow)
 

Figure 2. Intra-operative photo showing the segment of lung stained by methylene blue under normal light (a); the same segment of lung seen with indocyanine green fluorescence (b); the wedge of excised lung under normal light (c), and with indocyanine green fluorescence (d), confirming complete resection
 
Discussion
Intra-operative localisation of small pulmonary nodules remains a challenge for prompt and complete resection of lesions. It is recommended that preoperative localisation should be performed prior to minimally invasive resection for pulmonary nodules <10 mm in diameter or >5 mm from the pleural surface.1 Various means of preoperative localisation have been reported in children including micro-coil insertion, methylene blue dye injection, and radiotracer labelling.2 Hookwire is reported to be safe and useful for localisation of lung nodules in children as well as other situations such as thoracoscopic resection of deep-seated congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation.2 3 Although these methods are considered feasible in children, they have their own limitations and risks, such as local trauma and issues of inaccuracy in small lesions for hookwire localisation; difficulty in revealing deep lesions and diffuse spillage in small lesions of methylene blue dye. Efforts have been made to find a convenient, safe, and clear method for localisation.
 
The United States Food and Drug Administration has recently extended the approved uses of ICG to include sentinel lymph node biopsy in various types of tumour, assessment of blood supply in anastomosis and reconstructive flaps and enhanced visualisation of biliary anatomy during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.4 In thoracic surgery, it is a useful aid to sentinel lymph node mapping, lung mapping, oesophageal conduit vascular perfusion, and lung nodule identification.5 To date, no data about the use of ICG in thoracoscopic wedge resection in paediatric patients have been reported. In our experience, ICG preoperative localisation is a safe and feasible means to help achieve prompt and complete thoracoscopic wedge resection of small pulmonary nodules. It appeared to be more accurate than hookwire localisation in this patient, allowing immediate clear visualisation when guiding the extent of resection. It also facilitated easy assessment of completeness of resection.
 
In conclusion, ICG fluorescence is a safe and feasible method of localisation prior to thoracoscopic wedge resection of a pulmonary nodule in children.
 
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the concept or design of the study, acquisition of the data, analysis or interpretation of the data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
As an editor of the journal, KKY Wong was not involved in the peer review process. Other authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided written informed consent for all procedures.
 
References
1. Suzuki K, Nagai K, Yoshida J, et al. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery for small indeterminate pulmonary nodules: indications for preoperative marking. Chest 1999;115:563-8. Crossref
2. Polites SF, Fahy AS, Sunnock WA, et al. Use of radiotracer labeling of pulmonary nodules to facilitate excisional biopsy and metastasectomy in children with solid tumors. J Pediatr Surg 2018;53:1369-73. Crossref
3. Lau CT, Wong KK. Thoracoscopic resection of congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation in a patient with fused lung fissure using hookwire. Innovations (Phila) 2018;13:226-9. Crossref
4. Namikawa T, Sato T, Hanazaki K. Recent advances in near-infrared fluorescence-guided imaging surgery using indocyanine green. Surg Today 2015;45:1467-74. Crossref
5. Okusanya OT, Hess NR, Luketich JD, Sarkaria IS. Infrared intraoperative fluorescence imaging using indocyanine green in thoracic surgery. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2018;53:512-8. Crossref

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