Anaphylaxis after surgical excision of subcutaneous infection with parasitic Dirofilaria: a case report

© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Anaphylaxis after surgical excision of subcutaneous infection with parasitic Dirofilaria: a case report
Brian WC Luk, MB, BS; CN Cheung, MB, ChB, FHKAM (Orthopaedic Surgery); YF Chan, MB, BS, FHKAM (Orthopaedic Surgery)
Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Pok Oi Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr Brian WC Luk (lukwingchung@gmail.com)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
In January 2018, a 21-year-old man with good past health presented with a 2-week history of left forearm painless lump. He had no fever. The lump was 30 mm in diameter with no evidence of inflammation. Preoperative diagnosis was a sebaceous cyst and preoperative blood tests were not routinely performed.
 
Surgical excision was performed under local anaesthesia with lidocaine and application of a tourniquet. Intra-operatively, a whitish-yellowish 25-mm subcutaneous nodule surrounded by dense adhesions without a definite border was removed. The nodule was firm and multi-lobulated with multiple feeding vessels. Although en bloc excision with a 5-mm margin was attempted, the dense fibrous mass was partially breached during dissection due to scarring.
 
After tourniquet release, the patient developed flushing, dizziness, diarrhoea, hypotension, and sinus tachycardia. He had no respiratory distress but the clinical diagnosis was anaphylactic shock. He was stabilised with fluid resuscitation and intravenous adrenaline. Laboratory tests showed an elevated white blood cell count (WBC) at 13.6 × 109/L (reference range: 3.9-10.7 × 109/L), neutrophil predominance at 85.9% (reference: 38%-76%), and low eosinophil count of only 0.027 × 109/L (reference: <0.45 × 109/L) and 0.2% of total WBC. Blood tests were otherwise unremarkable. Serum mast cell tryptase level was 46.2 μg/L immediately after surgery but dropped to 3.3 μg/L after 24 hours. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C-reactive protein were not measured. The patient remained well and was discharged home the next day.
 
The patient had no known history of allergy and skin allergy test for exposed agents including lidocaine was negative. On further questioning, he revealed regular contact with horses located in a countryside barn but no contact with other animals. He reported skin erythema (Fig 1) prior to swelling onset but had presumed this was due to a mosquito bite.
 

Figure 1. Clinical photograph of a 21-year-old patient with dirofilariasis showing the development of skin swelling on the left proximal volar forearm after the onset of erythema
 
Microscopy of the nodule revealed a piece of fibro-fatty tissue with mixed inflammatory cell infiltrate and dense eosinophilic infiltrate (Fig 2a), and a 0.72 mm × 0.29 mm fragment of degenerated parasite rimmed by foamy histiocytes (Fig 2b). There was no evidence of malignancy. The surgical margin measured from the edge of the surrounding granulomatous inflammation to the closest edge of the excised specimen was 0.82 mm. Further molecular study by polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequencing based on Filarioidea cytochrome oxidase subunit I (cox1) and specific 12S ribosomal RNA (12S rRNA) gene revealed the parasite to be Dirofilaria hongkongensis.1
 

Figure 2. Histopathological results from the same patient showing (a) degenerated parasite with ghost outline of the muscular layer and tubular structure, measuring 0.72 mm × 0.29 mm (haematoxylin and eosin, ×100) and (b) mixed inflammatory cell infiltrate with dense eosinophilic infiltrate (haematoxylin and eosin, ×400)
 
The patient remained symptom-free and differential WBC and C-reactive protein were normal at 6 months after surgery. No antiparasitic therapy was deemed necessary by microbiologists.
 
Discussion
Dirofilaria hongkongensis has been proposed as a novel species causing zoonotic filariasis in humans and is a possible cause of unresolved subcutaneous nodules in Hong Kong.2 This is the first reported case worldwide of anaphylactic shock following excision of subcutaneous dirofilariasis in a human.
 
Zoonotic filariae are transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected arthropod such as mosquitoes. However, they cannot grow to maturity in accidental hosts such as humans.3 The pathogenesis is localised foreign body reaction around a moribund parasite. The absence of a host inflammatory response in the asymptomatic period suggests death of the worm due to an unfavourable host environment, rather than host immunity.3 Asymptomatic survival and growth of the parasite may continue for ≥6 months. The lesion becomes clinically noticeable due to granulomatous reaction with tissue scarring and can present as a subcutaneous or ocular lesion, and rarely as lymphadenopathy and nodules in deeper tissues such as the lungs. In our patient, the subcutaneous dirofilariasis presented as a painless lump in his forearm, without any symptoms or signs of inflammation. The patient reported some skin erythema prior to the onset of the swelling. The erythema could have been caused by a mosquito bite, which is a possible route of parasite transmission. The absence of pain, warmth, or erythema over the mass would suggest the parasite did not trigger a significant inflammatory response in our patient. After the parasite’s death, the remaining material could be shielded off from the host tissue by a dense fibrous tissue envelope, producing a lump which was otherwise asymptomatic.
 
Careful history taking may reveal exposure to animals. Subcutaneous infections are small (0.5-1.5 cm) and discrete. Pain or sense of a moving worm may be present. Blood tests for eosinophilia and elevated inflammatory markers might be useful, but the absence of systemic inflammation is common3 and blood test results may be unremarkable. In our patient, blood tests were not taken preoperatively, as the clinical impression of the mass was a sebaceous cyst, with the absence of signs of inflammation. Postoperative blood tests showed neutrophilia instead of eosinophilia, but the results were likely affected by the anaphylaxis.
 
Among around 40 species of Dirofilaria, D immitis and D repens account for most cases of infection in humans. Dirofilaria immitis is commonly known as “dog heartworm” and has a cosmopolitan distribution. Hou et al4 reported seropositivity in 30.6% of stray dogs and 15.6% of domestic dogs in north-eastern China. Wang et al5 reported a 0% to 7.4% seroprevalence in dogs in coastal cities in south-eastern China. Dirofilaria repens is prevalent worldwide including Southeast Asia. Dirofilaria hongkongensis was first proposed as a distinct species in 2012, following three cases of human infection.2 In stray dogs in Hong Kong, the seroprevalence of D hongkongensis is 3%,2 and that of D immitis is 10%.6
 
Molecular study in nucleotide sequencing of cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene and the 12S ribosomal RNA (12S rRNA) gene is useful in the identification of Dirofilaria species, taking reference from GenBank data. The cox1 gene and 12S rRNA gene specific to D hongkongensis were identified (GenBank accession number NC_031365). Simpler diagnostic tests would be less reliable; for example, morphological identification depends on the quality of histopathological specimen, and in our case only parasitic fragments were found. Retrospective molecular study could also be performed on the stored specimen for epidemiological studies.
 
Parasitic materials are foreign antigens that may trigger a type I immunoglobulin E–mediated hypersensitivity reaction. Dirofilaria immitis extract can result in shock and elevated plasma histamine level in dogs,7 while hydatid cyst (Echinococcus spp) rupture has been associated with anaphylactic shock.8 We believe the partial breach of the parasitic tissue envelope during our surgical dissection led to contact of parasitic material with host tissue. This contact, in turn, caused the hypersensitivity reaction and anaphylactic shock in our patient.
 
We recommend complete en bloc excision of lesions suspected to be caused by dirofilariasis to prevent anaphylaxis, especially when surgeons encounter dense adhesions or multiple feeding vessels. Further study is required to ascertain the necessary margin of excision to avoid inadvertent breakage of the tissue envelope. Up to 75.4% of parasitised humans experience chronic urticaria.9 In our patient, the capsule was breached during dissection and sudden allergen release may have triggered the anaphylactic cascade. Antiparasitic medication is likely unnecessary if the parasite can be removed intact.
 
Anaphylactic shock can cause sudden haemodynamic collapse. It is characterised by acute onset of hypotension after allergen exposure, or the combination of cutaneous, cardiopulmonary or gastrointestinal manifestations.10 The importance of routine monitoring, timely detection and cardiopulmonary stabilisation cannot be overemphasised. Plasma tryptase or histamine level may serve as a diagnostic adjunct in doubtful cases. Fluid resuscitation, supplemental oxygen, and epinephrine injection are indicated as effective treatments of anaphylactic shock.
 
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the concept of study, acquisition and analysis of data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
All authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided verbal informed consent for publication of this de-identified case report, including clinical photos.
 
References
1. Dang TC, Nguyen TH, Do TD, et al. A human case of subcutaneous dirofilariasis caused by Dirofilaria repens in Vietnam: histologic and molecular confirmation. Parasitol Res 2010;107:1003-7. Crossref
2. To KK, Wong SS, Poon RW, et al. A novel Dirofilaria species causing human and canine infections in Hong Kong. J Clin Microbiol 2012;50:3534-41. Crossref
3. Eberhard ML. Zoonotic filariasis. In: Guerrant R, Walker D, Weller P, editors. Tropical Infectious Diseases: Principles, Pathogens, and Practice. 3rd ed. New York: Elsevier; 2011: 750-8. Crossref
4. Hou H, Shen G, Wu W, et al. Prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis infection in dogs from Dandong, China. Vet Parasitol 2011;183:189-93. Crossref
5. Wang J, Zhu X, Ying Z, et al. Prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis infections in dogs and cats in Hainan Island/Province and three other coastal cities of China based on antigen testing and PCR. J Parasitol 2019;105:199-202. Crossref
6. Wong SS, Teng JL, Poon RW, et al. Comparative evaluation of a point-of-care immunochromatographic test SNAP 4DX with molecular detection tests for vector-borne canine pathogens in Hong Kong. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011;11:1269-77. Crossref
7. Kitoh K, Katoh H, Kitagawa H, Nagase M, Sasaki N, Sasaki Y. Role of histamine in heartworm extract-induced shock in dogs. Am J Vet Res 2001;62:770-4. Crossref
8. Khanna P, Garg R, Pawar D. Intraoperative anaphylaxis caused by a hepatic hydatid cyst. Singapore Med J 2011;52:e18-9.
9. Minciullo PL, Cascio A, Gangemi S. Association between urticaria and nematode infections. Allergy Asthma Proc 2018;39:86-95. Crossref
10. Simons FE, Ardusso LR, Bilò MB, et al. World allergy organization guidelines for the assessment and management of anaphylaxis. World Allergy Organ J 2011;4:13-37. Crossref

Combined interstitial laser cauterisation of placental anastomosis and intrauterine intracardiac transfusion following monochorionic co-twin demise: a case report

© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Combined interstitial laser cauterisation of placental anastomosis and intrauterine intracardiac transfusion following monochorionic co-twin demise: a case report
PW Hui, MD, FRCOG; Mimi TY Seto, MB, BS, FHKAM (Obstetrics and Gynaecology); KW Cheung, MB, BS, FHKAM (Obstetrics and Gynaecology
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Queen Mary Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr PW Hui (apwhui@hku.hk)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
Single fetal demise in monochorionic pregnancy is associated with significant morbidity and mortality of the co-twin. We report the case of a 36-year-old nulliparous woman with unexpected single fetal demise in a monochorionic twin pregnancy diagnosed at 15 weeks and 4 days. She had been well since her last normal scan at 13 weeks and 3 days and no discordance in crown rump length or nuchal translucency thickness had been evident. Non-invasive prenatal testing for common aneuploidy screening was negative.
 
Ultrasound showed demise of one twin and scalp oedema and ascites in the surviving co-twin. Cardiothoracic ratio was elevated to 0.59 and tricuspid regurgitation was seen. Peak systolic velocity (PSV) of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) was increased to 2.18 multiples of median (MoM; 45.1 cm/s) and diastolic flow in the umbilical artery was absent. Cord insertion was velamentous and an arterial anastomosis was identified along the placental surface from the surviving twin to the placental cord insertion of the miscarried twin (Fig 1a and b).
 

Figure 1. Ultrasound images showing the presence of arterial placental anastomosis from the surviving twin to placental cord insertion of the miscarried twin, laser cauterisation and intracardiac transfusion. (a) Placental cord insertion of miscarried twin; (b) arterial vessel running from surviving twin to placental cord insertion of miscarried twin; (c) laser cauterisation of arterial anastomotic vessel; and (d) intracardiac transfusion with needle directed to right ventricle
 
The couple were counselled extensively on management options that included termination of pregnancy, conservative management, or active intrauterine interventions. Within 24 hours, the patient opted to undergo rescue transfusion for fetal anaemia and interstitial laser cauterisation of the placental anastomosis. Interstitial laser cauterisation was performed using an 18G spinal needle inserted transplacentally under ultrasound guidance to the anastomotic artery close to the cord insertion of the miscarried twin. A 780-μm laser fibre was advanced to 3 mm beyond the needle tip. Cauterisation was started with a 20-W diode laser and stepped up to 40 W for 100 s. Fetal heart pulsation was checked intermittently and was normal throughout. Cessation of blood flow was confirmed by colour Doppler ultrasonography (Fig 1c).
 
Intracardiac transfusion was performed the next day via a 22G needle directed to the fetal right ventricle (Fig 1d). Before the transfusion, haemoglobin was 4.2 g/dL and haematocrit was 10.5%. Transfusion of 4.5-mL O positive blood with haematocrit of 80% and irradiated for cytomegalovirus was uneventful. No bradycardia or pericardial effusion occurred. After the transfusion, haemoglobin was 12.6 g/dL and haematocrit was 37.2%. The MCA PSV was 48.7 cm/s (2.35 MoM) before the laser cauterisation and 50 cm/s (2.39 MoM) before the transfusion. It was reduced to 0.9 MoM after the transfusion. Other workup for fetal hydrops was negative.
 
The patient was monitored by weekly ultrasound for level of MCA PSV MoM and resolution of hydrops. Ascites disappeared 5 days after transfusion and MCA PSV was 1.3 MoM. Subcutaneous oedema subsided 1 week later and cardiothoracic ratio improved to 0.56. Fetal magnetic resonance imaging and detailed echocardiography at 22 weeks of gestation showed no abnormality. A loop of prominent bowel was noticed after 23 weeks of gestation. This was progressively dilated to 1.72 cm at 33 weeks of gestation. Peristalsis was present and bowel atresia was suspected. The patient went into preterm labour at 34 weeks and 2 days, delivering a baby boy weighing 1960 g. An area of cauterisation on the placental surface was evident next to the cord insertion of the miscarried twin (Fig 2).
 

Figure 2. Photograph of placenta showing an area of cauterisation (arrow) next to cord insertion of miscarried twin
 
Neonatal laparotomy on day 1 showed type 4 intestinal atresia. Resection of multiple atretic segments of the small bowel and primary anastomosis were performed. A second laparotomy was required on day 34 for resection of rectal atresia. Bowel function returned to normal afterwards. The baby had grade 1 intraventricular haemorrhage that resolved spontaneously and at age 5 months he had reached the appropriate developmental milestones.
 
Discussion
Single twin demise occurs in monochorionic pregnancies with twin-twin transfusion syndrome (TTTS) and selective intrauterine growth restriction but may also occur unexpectedly in pregnancies with no obvious complications.1 Feto-fetal haemorrhage through the placenta anastomosis leads to acute hypovolaemia and results in fetal anaemia, cerebral damage or death of the co-twin.1 2 Bowel and renal complications have also been reported.3 4 The present case illustrates successful intervention with a combination of interstitial laser to a placental anastomosis and intracardiac transfusion for a fetus at 15 weeks of gestation following monochorionic co-twin demise. The risk of co-twin demise and neonatal death is increased significantly in cases of single intrauterine fetal death in monochorionic pregnancies before 28 weeks.5 The surviving fetus is also at risk of other morbidity secondary to feto-fetal haemorrhage and hypoperfusion. Neurological damage affects almost 20% of co-twin survivors especially in fetuses demonstrating signs of fetal anaemia.1 6 This can be assessed by measuring MCA PSV.7 A value >1.55 MoM is suggested to be associated with a fivefold increase in the relative risk of cerebral injury.1
 
Rescue intrauterine transfusion has been proposed for an anaemic monochorionic survivor.8 The optimal timing of transfusion and impact on overall long-term outcome remain debatable. Feto-fetal haemorrhage may continue after intrauterine transfusion. It is, therefore, rational to conduct a sonographic search for placental anastomosis and perform cauterisation to cease further feto-fetal haemorrhage prior to intrauterine transfusion. In this case, an arterial vessel running towards the placental cord insertion of the miscarried twin was identified. With the presence of this anastomosis, rescue transfusion for the surviving fetus was unlikely to be effective as fetal anaemia could persist. Interstitial laser has been reported in cauterisation of feeding vessels in chorioangioma, fetal hyperechogenic lung lesion, and sacrococcygeal teratoma.9 Adopting the principle of intrauterine laser ablation in TTTS, a laser fibre was inserted via a 18G spinal needle transplacentally to cauterise this vessel under ultrasound guidance. A fetoscopic approach was not considered in view of the early gestation with an anterior placenta and absence of polyhydramnios. The energy requirement was guided by generation of an echogenic area around the fibre tip encompassing the vessel and cessation of blood flow on Doppler ultrasound.
 
Intracardiac fetal transfusion was performed because of the early gestation and difficult intravascular assess. This technique was first introduced in the late 1980s.10 Experience was gathered mainly from transfusing fetuses that were anaemic due to rhesus isoimmunisation or parvovirus infection reported as early as 16 weeks of gestation.11 12 13 Transient fetal bradycardia, haemopericardium, pericardial tamponade, and asystole are known complications.10 11 12
 
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of successful rescue of an anaemic co-twin survivor in a monochorionic pregnancy by combining laser to placental anastomosis and intracardiac transfusion as early as 15 weeks of gestation. Time was required for blood product preparation and also allowed the fetus to establish a new circulatory equilibrium following laser therapy when the ongoing transfusion was completed. It is of interest to note that fetal ascites may be an early presentation of bowel complications secondary to in-utero anaemia.3 Mesenteric ischaemia in monochorionic twins has been postulated to be related to haemodynamic alteration in case of co-twin demise, hypoperfusion, and/or hyperviscosity in TTTS or thromboembolic phenomenon after laser ablation. Ascites might also be an indication of circulatory insufficiency even in the absence of severe fetal anaemia. Evidence of transient cardiac failure has been reported after single fetal death in monochorionic twins and immediate intrauterine transfusion has been advocated to restore the circulatory volume.2
 
This case did not have features of TTTS although ascites, cardiomegaly, and tricuspid regurgitation were noted after co-twin demise and before intrauterine intervention. Although fetal anaemia was ascertained and hypovolaemic shock was likely present, it is not always possible to determine whether the ascites is secondary to circulatory insufficiency or bowel complications. As well as treating fetal anaemia, intrauterine transfusion may also correct circulatory insufficiency and restore cardiac function. The prompt intervention in this fetus led to complete resolution of the ultrasound abnormalities and possibly improved the neurological outcomes. The fetus required further monitoring for bowel complications that might only become obvious at a later stage of gestation.
 
In managing co-twin demise in a monochorionic pregnancy, assessment of the survivor requires detailed ultrasound examination to search for placental anastomosis, as well as an immediate assessment for signs of fetal anaemia and bowel or haemodynamic complications. Early laser cauterisation of placental anastomosis to control feto-fetal haemorrhage is an option combined with rescue intrauterine transfusion to prevent anaemia and circulatory insufficiency in the surviving twin.
 
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the concept of the study, acquisition of the data, and analysis of the data, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. PW Hui drafted the manuscript. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
All authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and provided informed consent for all procedures.
 
References
1. Lanna MM, Consonni D, Faiola S, et al. Incidence of cerebral injury in monochorionic twin survivors after spontaneous single demise: long-term outcome of a large cohort. Fetal Diagn Ther 2020;47:66-73. Crossref
2. Iwagaki S, Takahashi Y, Chiaki R, Asai K, Matsui M, Katsura D. Case of resuscitation from cardiac failure by intrauterine transfusion after single fetal death in monochorionic twin pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2019;45:2105-10. Crossref
3. Tan LN, Cheung KW, Philip I, Ong S, Kilby MD. Isolated ascites in a monochorionic twin after fetoscopic laser ablation is not necessarily secondary to recurrence or anaemia: bowel complications in twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome after fetoscopic laser ablation. Fetal Diagn Ther 2019;45:285-94. Crossref
4. Genova L, Sueters M, van Steenis A, Oepkes D, Steggerda SJ, Lopriore E. Renal failure after single fetal demise in monochorionic twins: incidence and description of a case. Fetal Diagn Ther 2014;35:302-5. Crossref
5. Mackie FL, Rigby A, Morris RK, Kilby MD. Prognosis of the co-twin following spontaneous single intrauterine fetal death in twin pregnancies: a systematic review and metaanalysis. BJOG 2019;126:569-78. Crossref
6. Mackie FL, Morris RK, Kilby MD. Fetal brain injury in survivors of twin pregnancies complicated by demise of one twin: a review. Twin Res Hum Genet 2016;19:262-7. Crossref
7. Senat MV, Loizeau S, Couderc S, Bernard JP, Ville Y. The value of middle cerebral artery peak systolic velocity in the diagnosis of fetal anemia after intrauterine death of one monochorionic twin. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;189:1320-4. Crossref
8. Quarello E, Stirnemann J, Nassar M, et al. Outcome of anaemic monochorionic single survivors following early intrauterine rescue transfusion in cases of feto-fetal transfusion syndrome. BJOG 2008;115:595-601. Crossref
9. Mathis J, Raio L, Baud D. Fetal laser therapy: applications in the management of fetal pathologies. Prenat Diagn 2015;35:623-36. Crossref
10. Westgren M, Selbing A, Stangenberg M. Fetal intracardiac transfusions in patients with severe rhesus isoimmunisation. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1988;296:885-6. Crossref
11. von Kaisenberg CS, Grebe S, Schleider S, Kuhling-von Kaisenberg H, Venhoff L, Meinhold-Heerlein I. Successful intrauterine intracardiac transfusion in monochorionic twins affected by parvovirus B19. Fetal Diagn Ther 2007;22:420-4. Crossref
12. Mackie FL, Pretlove SJ, Martin WL, Donovan V, Kilby MD. Fetal intracardiac transfusions in hydropic fetuses with severe anemia. Fetal Diagn Ther 2015;38:61-4. Crossref
13. Yinon Y, Visser J, Kelly EN, et al. Early intrauterine transfusion in severe red blood cell alloimmunization. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2010;36:601-6. Crossref

Novel diaphragmatic reconstruction technique for recurrent diaphragmatic hernia: a case report

© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Novel diaphragmatic reconstruction technique for recurrent diaphragmatic hernia: a case report
Teddy HY Wong, MRCS; Simon CY Chow, FRCS; Peter SY Yu, MRCS; Jacky YK Ho, FRCS; Rainbow WH Lau, FRCS; Innes YP Wan, FRCS; Randolph HL Wong, FRCS
Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Prince of Wales Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr Randolph HL Wong (wonhl1@surgery.cuhk.edu.hk)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
A 51-year-old lady with a history of congenital diaphragmatic hernia repair during infancy presented to the emergency department with increasing abdominal pain and repeated vomiting. Posteroanterior chest plain radiograph revealed dilated small bowel loops in the right thoracic cavity. Computed tomography scan revealed two closely related small bowel loops trapped within a narrow hernia neck orifice across the diaphragm, suggestive of closed loop intestinal obstruction (Fig 1). Blood test results revealed metabolic acidosis and elevated lactate level.
 

Figure 1. Computed tomography showing large right diaphragmatic hernial defect (blue arrow)
 
Emergency laparotomy via a subcostal incision revealed a right-sided large diaphragmatic defect with bowel herniating into the thoracic cavity. Transabdominal reduction of the bowel was difficult owing to adhesion of bowel to the lung so an additional posterolateral thoracotomy was performed by a cardiothoracic team. Adhesiolysis was performed and the small bowel freed and reduced to the abdominal cavity via the transthoracic approach. Examination through the thoracotomy revealed minimal residual diaphragmatic tissue (Fig 2a). Primary closure was not possible and repair with a patch posed a technical challenge in the absence of sufficient residual diaphragmatic tissue to enable secure anchorage. For the anterolateral portion, multiple pledgetted 3-O sutures were passed through the intercostal space for anchorage (Fig 2b). A neo-diaphragm was reconstructed using a porcine dermal collagen implant of size 150 mm × 200 mm × 1 mm (PermacolTM; Medtronic, Minneapolis [MN], United States). The patch was then parachuted down to cover the defect and secured. A 4-cm flutter-valve patch was directed downwards and medially to avoid suturing and injury to the oesophagus and inferior vena cava (Fig 2c). We believe this design permits peristalsis of oesophageal content without causing stricture while also preventing future intestinal herniation.
 

Figure 2. Schematic diagram illustrating the novel diaphragmatic reconstruction. (a) Visual examination through the thoracotomy revealed the ribcage (black arrow) and residual diaphragmatic tissue (black arrowheads). (b) Multiple pledgetted 3-O sutures were passed through the intercostal space for anchorage of the anterolateral portion. Oesophagus is indicated by black arrow. (c) A 4-cm flutter-valve patch was directed downwards and medially to avoid suturing and injury to the reconstructed oesophagus and inferior vena cava. Inset: Alternate view showing downward flutter valve (yellow arrow)
 
Postoperatively the patient was prescribed total parenteral nutrition for 10 days and gradually tolerated a normal diet. A computed tomography scan at 10 days after surgery confirmed an intact neo-diaphragm with no recurrence of hernia. The patient was discharged home 13 days after surgery. She was well at follow-up examinations at 1 month and 12 months after surgery. Chest plain radiograph confirmed no recurrence of hernia (Fig 3).
 

Figure 3. Chest plain radiographs of the patient (a) before and (b) after surgical repair of the diaphragmatic hernia with neo-diaphragm
 
Discussion
Diaphragmatic hernia is a rare but serious condition associated with respiratory and gastrointestinal complications and increased mortality.
 
Surgical repair is the gold standard treatment to prevent complications. However, patients with a previously repaired congenital diaphragmatic hernia are more prone to respiratory complications during childhood and occasionally develop recurrences.1 However, the long-term success rate of repair is good with patients surviving well into adulthood with a normal life expectancy.
 
Surgical options for repair include a primary repair and a patch repair. A patch repair is associated with higher risks of complications and recurrence.2 However, for a hernia with large defects in which a primary repair is not possible, repair with surgical mesh (xenograft or synthetic) is an effective and safe method.3 In conventional patch repair, the hernia sac is repositioned and resected. The hernia defect is sized and the Permacol trimmed to cover the defect. The flap is then fixed to the remaining rim of diaphragmatic tissue with absorbable sutures.4 The lack of an adequate rim of tissue in our patient presented a unique challenge for construction of the neo-diaphragm relative to most instances of diaphragmatic hernia where a remnant of diaphragmatic tissue is present for anchorage. Although the pleura and adjacent chest wall offer good support for anchoring the neo-diaphragm posteriorly and anterolaterally, there is often a lack of strong tissue medially with consequent substantial risk of inadvertent injury to the oesophagus if sutures are placed too deeply. Travers et al5 reported an incidence of oesophageal injury up to 3.9% in their series of surgical repair of para-oesophageal hernia using porcine dermal collagen biologic mesh (Permacol). Innovative designs in the creation of the neo-diaphragm have been reported, but most studies have been in paediatric patients.6 The technique described in this case report is novel and has not been reported elsewhere. The design of a flutter valve mechanism in the reconstruction of the medial aspect of the neo-diaphragm serves to create a tension-free repair near the mediastinum and oesophagus while also creating a seal to separate the pleural cavity from the abdominal contents. No sutures were applied near the oesophagus or the medial side of the neo-diaphragm. This technique avoids inadvertent visceral injury and is currently our preferred technique of neo-diaphragm construction in patients with a large diaphragmatic defect and insufficient rim.
 
In our case, we utilised the acellular dermal matrix Permacol for hernia repair. Permacol is a cross-linked graft comprised of acellular collagen matrix. Compared with other collagen-based implants, it offers long-lasting dimensional stability and avoids loss of tensile strength as well as increased tissue laxity resulting in lower rates of recurrence. Acellular dermal matrix is a developing technology and studies have shown promising results for its efficacy.7
 
In conclusion, repair of diaphragmatic hernia with a xenograft composed of dermal collagen implant and a medial flutter-valve design is safe and effective. It avoids inadvertent injury to mediastinal structures while allowing satisfactory prevention of recurrence of diaphragmatic herniation of intestines.
 
Author contributions
Concept or design: All authors.
Acquisition of data: All authors.
Analysis or interpretation of data: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: THY Wong, SCY Chow, RHL Wong.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.
 
All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
All authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided written informed consent for all treatments and procedures and consent for publication.
 
References
1. Jancelewicz T, Chiang M, Oliveira C, Chiu PP. Late surgical outcomes among congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) patients: why long-term follow-up with surgeons is recommended. J Pediatr Surg 2013;48:935-41. Crossref
2. Jancelewicz T, Vu LT, Keller RL, et al. Long-term surgical outcomes in congenital diaphragmatic hernia: observations from a single institution. J Pediatr Surg 2010;45:155-60. Crossref
3. Kuhn R, Schubert D, Wolff St, Marusch F, Lippert H, Pross M. Repair of diaphragmatic rupture by laparoscopic implantation of a polytetrafluoroethylene patch. Surg Endosc 2002;16:1495. Crossref
4. Lingohr P, Galetin T, Vestweber B, Matthaei H, Kalff JC, Vestweber KH. Conventional mesh repair of a giant iatrogenic bilateral diaphragmatic hernia with an enterothorax. Int Med Case Rep J 2014;7:23-5. Crossref
5. Travers HC, Brewer JO, Smart NJ, Wajed SA. Diaphragmatic crural augmentation utilising cross-linked porcine dermal collagen biologic mesh (Permacol) in the repair of large and complex para-oesophageal herniation: a retrospective cohort study. Hernia 2016;20:311-20. Crossref
6. Loff S, Wirth H, Jester I, et al. Implantation of a cone-shaped double-fixed patch increases abdominal space and prevents recurrence of large defects in congenital diaphragmatic hernia. J Pediatr Surg 2005;40:1701-5. Crossref
7. Buinewicz B, Rosen B. Acellular cadaveric dermis (AlloDerm): a new alternative for abdominal hernia repair. Ann Plast Surg 2004;52:188-94. Crossref

Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis secondary to dengue fever: a case report

© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis secondary to dengue fever: a case report
SW Cheo, MRCP (UK)1; WNFA Abdul Rashid, MB, BS (UM)1; CV Ho, MPath (UPM)2; Rosdina Z Ahmad Akhbar, MMed (UiTM)1; QJ Low, MRCP (UK)3; Giri S Rajahram, FRCP (UK)4
1 Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Lahad Datu, Sabah, Malaysia
2 Department of Pathology, Hospital Queen Elizabeth, Sabah, Malaysia
3 Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Sultanah Nora Ismail, Johor, Malaysia
4 Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Queen Elizabeth, Sabah, Malaysia
 
Corresponding author: Dr SW Cheo (cheosengwee@gmail.com)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case presentation
A 30-year-old man with underlying microcytic hypochromic anaemia presented to a local health clinic with a 3-day history of fever and 1-day history of arthralgia, myalgia, abdominal pain, and vomiting. On presentation, he was hypotensive at 84/50 mm Hg and tachycardic with pulse rate 118 beats per minute. He responded well to fluid resuscitation and was referred to hospital. Upon arrival, he was alert with normal Glasgow Coma Scale score, blood pressure 126/82 mm Hg, pulse rate 126 beats per minute and temperature 37.7°C. Examination revealed jaundiced, cold peripheries, poor pulse volume, and a capillary refill time >2 s. Respiratory examination showed crepitations over the lung bases bilaterally. Systemic examination was otherwise unremarkable.
 
His initial full blood count revealed haemoglobin of 9.8 g/dL, white cell count 6.37 × 109/L, and platelet count of 30 × 109/L. He had a deranged renal profile with sodium 134 mmol/L, potassium 5.2 mmol/L, urea 11.6 mmol/L, and creatinine 211 μmol/L. He was also acidotic with pH 7.39 and bicarbonate 14.3 mmol/L. Liver function biochemistry showed elevated transaminases, alanine aminotransferase 1114 U/L, aspartate aminotransferase 1816 U/L, and lactate 5.26 mmol/L (Table). He tested positive for dengue NS-1 and negative for dengue immunoglobulin M and immunoglobulin G. Blood smear for malaria parasite and Leptospira immunoglobulin M was negative. He was diagnosed with severe dengue, decompensated shock, and multiorgan failure.
 

Table. Serial investigation of a 30-year-old man with haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis
 
He was admitted to the intensive care unit and treated with fluid resuscitation and blood transfusion. Despite prompt initial resuscitation, his clinical response was poor with further deterioration in organ function. Elective intubation and urgent haemodialysis were performed but he collapsed prior to completion of the dialysis session. Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) was suspected in view of the multiorgan failure and rapid clinical deterioration. Workup revealed hypertriglyceridaemia of 8.7 mmol/L and hyperferritinaemia of >40 000 mg/L. Abdominal ultrasound showed splenomegaly. There was no family history of HLH. Unfortunately, he deteriorated further and progressed to disseminated intravascular coagulation, succumbing on day 3 of admission due to multiorgan failure. Histopathological examination of post-mortem bone marrow trephine biopsy confirmed the diagnosis of HLH (Fig). His dengue polymerase chain reaction test was later reported to be positive for DEN3 infection.
 

Figure. Immunohistochemical results of a post-mortem bone marrow biopsy from a 30-year-old man with haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, showing (a) sheets of benign histiocytes, some of which show phagocytosis of erythrocytes and lymphocytes (haematoxylin and eosin, ×10), (b) benign histiocytes with very prominent phagocytosis, mostly erythrocytes (haematoxylin and eosin, ×40), and (c) many histiocytes (CD68, ×40)
 
Discussion
Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis is a rare but potentially life-threatening condition caused by overactive immune activation. It was first described by Farquhar and Claireaux in 1952.1 Broadly, it can be divided into primary and secondary HLH. Primary HLH typically manifests in children with genetic abnormalities of natural killer cells and T cells. Secondary HLH is often associated with various infections that may be viral, bacterial, fungal or parasitic, and connective tissue disorders or malignancies, particularly T cell lymphoma.2 Dengue fever is a viral infection that can trigger secondary HLH. In recent years, more reports of dengue-associated HLH have emerged. It is important for clinicians to recognise this entity because it is associated with considerable mortality and morbidity.
 
Dengue fever is an arboviral disease caused by dengue virus, a virus of the Flaviviridae group. Worldwide, it is endemic in more than 100 countries. The World Health Organisation has estimated there to be 390 million dengue infections annually with 96 million manifesting clinically. It usually presents with fever, myalgia, arthralgia, eye pain, and headache. Around 5% of patients will progress to severe dengue, characterised by plasma leakage, hypovolaemic shock, haemorrhage, organ failure, and encephalopathy.3 Some patients with severe dengue will develop HLH.
 
Dengue is an uncommon cause of HLH, but it should be suspected in patients with unexplained systemic inflammatory response syndrome such as prolonged fever, cytopenias, malaise, and hepatosplenomegaly. Ongoing fever after 8 days of illness should alert clinicians to the possibility of HLH.4 Laboratory findings will show cytopenia, raised ferritin, triglyceride, liver impairment, hypofibrinogenaemia, and raised lactate dehydrogenase. The diagnosis of HLH can be established in the presence of a molecular diagnosis consistent with HLH or the presence of five out of eight criteria: fever >38.5°C; splenomegaly; peripheral blood cytopenias; hypertriglyceridaemia; hypofibrinogenaemia; haemophagocytosis in bone marrow, spleen or liver; hyperferritinaemia (>500 ng/mL); and increased CD25/interleukin-2 receptor or reduced natural killer cell function.4 The hallmark of diagnosis is observation of haemophagocytosis in the tissue. Molecular diagnosis consistent with HLH includes pathologic mutations of PRF1, UNC13D, Munc18-2, Rab27a, STX11, SH2D1A, or BIRC4.
 
Pathophysiologically, viral infection of T cells leads to overproduction of cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor alpha and interferon gamma and can lead to uncontrolled histiocytic activity. The consequent cytokine storm can lead to organ dysfunction and death. To date, only three serotypes of dengue virus (DEN1, DEN3 and DEN4) are known to cause HLH. Our patient fulfilled six of the HLH diagnostic criteria: having fever, splenomegaly, cytopenias, hypertriglyceridaemia, hyperferritenaemia, and haemophagocytosis in the bone marrow. He also exhibited raised bilirubin, liver enzymes and raised lactate dehydrogenase, and developed acute renal failure that required haemodialysis. Unfortunately, he became haemodynamically unstable during dialysis and eventually succumbed to his illness. Fibrinogen and CD25 levels were not measured as the tests were not available in our centre.
 
In the absence of treatment, dengueassociated HLH carries a high mortality.5 Essentially, it is important to suspect and diagnose the clinical syndrome early so that appropriate treatment can be given. In general, management of dengue-associated HLH includes standard fluid protocols and HLH-directed therapy. Dexamethasone and etoposide can be given as HLH-directed therapy to suppress the overactive immune response. The exact mechanism of etoposide in hyperinflammation is not well understood but it has been shown to alleviate symptoms of all murine HLH.5 As well as corticosteroid and etoposide, intravenous immunoglobulin and antithymocyte globulin have also been tried. However, clinicians should remain vigilant when administering HLH-directed therapy in the setting of concomitant sepsis.
 
Conclusion
Dengue-associated HLH is an important and unique entity. We believe that it is very much underreported due to failed recognition of the entity. The hallmark of this disease is an overactive immune response and presence of haemophagocytosis. Dengue-associated HLH can be diagnosed by HLH criteria and HLH-directed therapy initiated.
 
Author contributions
Concept or design: All authors.
Acquisition of data: SW Cheo.
Analysis or interpretation of data: SW Cheo, CV Ho, RZ Ahmad Akhbar, QJ Low.
Drafting of the manuscript: SW Cheo, WNFA Abdul Rashid, QJ Low.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.
 
All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
 
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Tan Sri Dato' Seri Dr Noor Hisham Abdullah, the Director General of Health Malaysia for his permission to publish this article.
 
Funding/support
This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided informed consent for all treatments and procedures, and the patient’s brother provided consent for publication.
 
References
1. Farquhar JW, Claireaux AE. Familial haemophagocytic reticulosis. Arch Dis Child 1952;27:519-25. Crossref
2. Ray U, Dutta S, Mondal S, Bandyopadhyay S. Severe dengue due to secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: a case study. IDCases 2017;8:50-3. Crossref
3. Ellis EM, Sharp TM, Pérez-Padilla J, et al. Incidence and risk factors for developing dengue-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in Puerto Rico, 2008-2013. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016;10:e0004939. Crossref
4. Koshy M, Mishra AK, Agrawal B, Kurup AR, Hansdak SG. Dengue fever complicated by hemophagocytosis. Oxf Med Case Reports 2016;2016:121-4. Crossref
5. Kan FK, Tan CC, Greenwood TVB, et al. Dengue infection complicated by hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: experiences from 180 patients with severe dengue. Clin Infect Dis 2020;70:2247-55. Crossref

Anaesthesia in a patient with COVID-19 undergoing elective lower segment caesarean section: a case report

Hong Kong Med J 2021 Jun;27(3):210–2  |  Epub 11 Jun 2021
© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Anaesthesia in a patient with COVID-19 undergoing elective lower segment caesarean section: a case report
Keith SK Yeung, MB, BS; CY Kwok, FHKCA, FHKAM (Anaesthesiology); YF Chow, FANZCA, FHKAM (Anaesthesiology)
Department of Anaesthesiology and Operating Theatre Services, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr Keith SK Yeung (keithyeung31@gmail.com)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
 
Case report
In July 2020, a 35-year-old pregnant woman (weight 70 kg, height 160 cm, body mass index 27.3) at 34+3 weeks of gestation presented to our hospital with upper respiratory tract infection symptoms including dry cough and runny nose for 4 days. The patient had a history of lower segment caesarean section in 2016, with good past health and an unremarkable antenatal history. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis of the patient’s deep throat saliva sample was positive for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The cycle threshold value was 19.79 indicating a high viral load. She had no fever or shortness of breath at any time.
 
The patient also presented with a small amount of per-vaginal spotting but had no abdominal pain or leaking sensation. Fetal movements were active. The patient’s blood pressure was 98/62 mm Hg, pulse was 97 bpm, SpO2 was 97% on room air, and body temperature was 37°C. Fetal ultrasonography was unremarkable with appropriate size for gestational age. The impression was of antepartum haemorrhage of unknown origin and maternal coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection.
 
The patient had normal liver and renal function, clotting profile and chest radiograph, and negative results for influenza A/B and respiratory syncytial virus tests. Other results included: haemoglobin 11.1 g/dL, platelet count 198×109/L, neutrophilia of 73% white blood cell differential count, lymphopenia at 0.9×109/L 16.5% of white blood cell differential count, and C-reactive protein 8 mg/L (ref <5 mg/L).
 
The patient was admitted to a negative pressure isolation ward, standard practice for airborne infection. A multidisciplinary meeting was held involving obstetricians, anaesthesiologists, paediatricians, microbiologists, infectious disease specialists, and intensivists. The consensus, agreed with the patient, was that an early elective lower segment caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia should be performed the next day.
 
Routes were isolated and protected for transferring patients between the operating theatre (OT), the isolation ward, and the neonatal intensive care unit, and for transferring healthcare workers from the OT to decontamination shower facilities. Only essential equipment, medications, and consumables were placed inside the OT. Disposable consumables were used whenever possible. Paper records were minimised and sealed.
 
Preparations were made inside the OT for spinal anaesthesia, and for conversion to general anaesthesia if necessary. Medications for induction and resuscitation were prepared in advance, including propofol, succinylcholine, cisatracurium, phenylephrine, ephedrine, atropine, neostigmine, syntocinon, carbetocin, and tranexamic acid. A video laryngoscope with disposable blades, stylet, elastic gum bougie, endotracheal tubes and size 3 and 4 classic and supreme laryngeal masks were placed under plastic sheet covers.
 
Staff exposure time was minimised, but this was balanced against an optimal standard of patient care. Only active essential personnel were present in the OT for each stage of surgery. All staff inside the OT wore level 3 personal protective equipment, including fluid-resistant long-sleeve gown, gloves, face shield, and fit-tested N95 masks according to airborne precautions. During spinal anaesthesia, only two anaesthesiologists and an assistant were present in the OT. The anaesthesiologists wore water-resistant sterile gowns during the spinal anaesthesia. Other staff, including the surgeons and midwives, waited in the anteroom entering the OT only when the anaesthesia was complete.
 
The patient wore a water-resistant surgical mask throughout the transfer and surgery. She required no supplementary oxygen. On entering the OT, her blood pressure was 120/82 mm Hg, pulse 91 bpm, and SpO2 99.4% on room air. Anaesthesia was induced by 2.2 mL of 0.5% hyperbaric bupivacaine, 15 μg of fentanyl, and 0.15 mg morphine injected intrathecally via a 25-gauge pencil tip spinal needle in a single attempt, at the L3-L4 level, with sensory block to T5 bilaterally. Phenylephrine (100 μg/mL) infusion at 15 mL/h (0.36 μg/kg/min) was commenced 5 minutes after spinal anaesthesia. A baby girl was delivered 19 minutes after the spinal injection. Total blood loss was 1000 mL, and 2000 mL of Plasma-Lyte A was infused. A phenylephrine infusion was titrated down and stopped on completion of the surgery. The patient’s blood pressure was 116/56 mm Hg and her pulse was 68 bpm. Monitoring continued in the same OT to avoid contamination of the post-anaesthesia care unit.
 
Postoperative analgesia included oral paracetamol 1 g four times daily and diclofenac sodium sustained release 100 mg daily. The patient was followed up daily. She was satisfied with the overall anaesthetic experience and pain control. The baby had 1-minute and 5-minute Apgar scores of 8. Repeated tests of nasopharyngeal aspiration and throat swab were negative for SARS-CoV-2 infection; however, the patient was nursed in an isolation ward in the neonatal intensive care unit as a precaution.
 
Samples including amniotic fluid, placental swab, high vaginal swab and breast milk all tested negative for SARS-CoV-2. All personnel directly involved in care of the mother and the baby and those involved in OT decontamination remained symptom free after 14 days of medical surveillance.
 
Discussion
The timing of delivery was a major concern for this patient. If the mother’s health had deteriorated before delivery, the use of certain antiviral medications would have caused deranged organ function and affected fetal well-being. Corticosteroid may have harmed the mother.1 2 Use of corticosteroids in preparation for premature labour is thought to cause a worse outcome in patients with COVID-19.3 Fortunately our patient was at >34 weeks’ gestation. Unexpected deterioration of the mother’s health could also result in the need for an unanticipated urgent operative delivery, imposing increased operative risks, as well as increased infectious risks to healthcare workers. In particular, general anaesthesia requires endotracheal intubation that is considered an aerosol-generating procedure. Spinal anaesthesia offered a good alternative to general anaesthesia in a planned setting, as illustrated by a case series from Wuhan, China, of 49 caesarean deliveries with good blood pressure control achieved under spinal anaesthesia.4
 
Early data suggest that pregnant women do not develop more severe COVID-19.5 In a study of 241 births in the United States, approximately 30% of mothers with COVID-19 became symptomatic, 7.1% required intensive care unit admission, 3.7% required intubation, and 0.7% progressed to a critical condition. The deterioration could be rapid and occurred over a variable time frame.5 Current guidelines suggest that COVID-19 infection by itself is not an indication for early induction of labour or operative delivery, but that the timing of delivery should be determined by obstetric indications.6
 
This patient presented with antepartum haemorrhage of unknown origin, and minor placental abruption could not be excluded. Any deterioration in placental abruption could rapidly jeopardise the well-being of the fetus and mother. The decision for early elective operative delivery was appropriate in these circumstances.
 
Concern was expressed about high viral load and infectivity, given the patient’s high cycle threshold value of 19.79. However, there is wide variation in the interpretation of cycle threshold,7 and no evidence that a lower cycle threshold value correlates with worse prognosis.8
 
This case report confirms that it is possible for a patient with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection to safely undergo spinal anaesthesia with maintenance of stable blood pressure.4 Our findings suggest that pregnant women with mild COVID-19 symptoms are little different to healthy pregnant women who undergo spinal anaesthesia for caesarean section.
 
Overall, this case report demonstrates that with the input of anaesthesiologists, joint clinical decisions and effective communication between relevant specialties, a well-planned and rehearsed routing, and correct use of personal protective equipment, the infectious risks to health care professionals could be minimised while providing an appropriate standard of care to the mother and the baby.
 
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the concept or design of the study, acquisition of the data, analysis or interpretation of the data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided written informed consent for all treatments and procedures.
 
References
1. Sanders JM, Monogue ML, Jodlowski TZ, Cutrell JB. Pharmacologic treatments for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a review. JAMA 2020;323:1824-36. Crossref
2. Bauer ME, Bernstein K, Dinges E, et al. Obstetric anesthesia during the COVID-19 pandemic. Anesth Analg 2020;131:7-15. Crossref
3. Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Society for Obstetric and Anesthesia and Perinatology. Labor and delivery COVID-19 considerations. Available from: https:// s3.amazonaws.com/cdn.smfm.org/media/2402/SMFM-SOAP_COVID_LD_Considerations_-_revision_6-16-20_PDF.pdf. Accessed 26 Jul 2020.
4. Zhong Q, Liu YY, Luo Q, et al. Spinal anaesthesia for patients with coronavirus disease 2019 and possible transmission rates in anaesthetists: retrospective, single-centre, observational cohort study. Br J Anaesth 2020;124:670-5. Crossref
5. Khoury R, Bernstein PS, Debolt C, et al. Characteristics and outcomes of 241 births to women with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection at five New York City Medical Centers. Obstet Gynecol 2020;136:273-82. Crossref
6. National Institutes of Health. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatment guidelines. Available from: https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/. Accessed 25 Jul 2020.
7. Han MS, Byun JH, Cho Y, Rim JH. RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2: quantitative versus qualitative. Lancet Infect Dis 2021;21:165. Crossref
8. Young BE, Ong SW, Kalimuddin S, et al. Epidemiologic features and clinical course of patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 in Singapore. JAMA 2020;323:1488-94. Crossref

Ketamine-associated nephropathy treated with renal transplantation: a case report

© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Ketamine-associated nephropathy treated with renal transplantation: a case report
John SL Leung, MB, BS1; Vincent YK Poon, FRCSEd (Urol)1; Thomas YC Lam, FRCSEd (Urol)1; CK Chan, FRCSEd (Urol)1; Y Chiu, FRCSEd (Urol)1; TY Chu, FRCSEd (Urol)1; Samuel KS Fung, FRCP (Edin), FRCP (Irel)2; WK Ma, FRCSEd (Urol)1
1 Department of Surgery, Princess Margaret Hospital, Hong Kong
2 Department of Medicine and Geriatrics, Princess Margaret Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr WK Ma (drmawk@gmail.com)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
We present a 37-year-old man who had been on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis for 8 years owing to ketamine-associated end-stage renal failure. He received a cadaveric renal graft in December 2019 at Princess Margaret Hospital, Hong Kong.
 
He first presented with haematuria and dysuria in 2004. He had been abusing ketamine steadily for 4 years. Mid-stream urine culture and acid-fast bacillus culture were negative; urine cytology, renal function, and ultrasonography of the urinary system were unremarkable. The patient subsequently defaulted on investigations and follow-up appointments.
 
The patient returned in 2010 with more severe symptoms of ketamine cystitis and reflux nephropathy. At that time, he was taking 0.3 to 0.6 g of ketamine by nasal inhalation up to 10 times a day. He had urinary frequency every 10 minutes and creatinine was 283 μmol/L (estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR] 25 mL/min/1.73 m2). Flexible cystoscopy showed cystitis changes; a biopsy of the urothelium yielded neutrophilic exudates mixed with fibrin, and fibroblastic stromal reaction. Ultrasound scan revealed bilateral hydronephrosis and a thickened bladder wall. Non-contrast computed tomography showed thinning of the renal cortex and bilateral hydronephrosis as well as thickening of the ureters, all indicative of ureteric inflammation (Fig 1). Repeat urine cytology, routine culture, and acid-fast bacillus cultures were all negative.
 

Figure 1. A 37-year-old man with ketamine-associated end-stage renal failure. Non-contrast computed tomography film of the patient showing (a) bilateral hydronephrosis and hydroureters with thinning of the renal cortices and (b) bilateral thickening of the ureteric walls, more severe at the left ureter (white arrows). (c) Spot film from a video cystometrogram showing bilateral vesico-ureteric reflux with dilated ureters and a dilated left renal pelvis
 
Video cystometrogram demonstrated typical features of ketamine cystitis, namely that of a small and contracted bladder: the bladder capacity was 25 mL; first desire to void was at 14 mL; detrusor instability occurred at a Pdet of 22 cmH2O (Fig 2). Additionally, bilateral grade III vesico-ureteric reflux was documented (Fig 1). The patient agreed only to a urethral catheter and refused upper tract urinary diversion with percutaneous nephrostomies.
 

Figure 2. Same patient. (a) Cystometrogram tracing of the patient from 2010 showing an extremely non-compliant bladder with first desire to void at 14 mL, and a bladder capacity of 25 mL. (b) Repeat cystometrogram 10 months before transplantation (after 9 years of abstinence), showing improvements in compliance
 
He began abstaining from ketamine in 2010 but refused dialysis until 2011 when his creatinine had reached 1079 μmol/L (eGFR 5 mL/min/1.73 m2). Annual broad-spectrum drug screening of the patient’s urine samples was negative for ketamine and its metabolites since then.
 
A repeat video cystometrogram in 2013, 3 years after complete abstinence from ketamine, showed improvements from his first video cystometrogram in 2010. Bladder capacity had improved to 124 mL; first desire to void improved to 51 mL. Detrusor overactivity was noted at 120 mL when the Pdet was 30 cmH2O. Only a left grade I vesico-ureteric reflux was observed.
 
In 2019, another video cystometrogram showed improvement in the first desire to void to 75 mL, no detrusor overactivity, and smooth bladder contour with no vesico-ureteric reflux (Fig 2). Bladder functional capacity was 200 mL. It was therefore deemed worthwhile for him to undergo renal transplantation without augmentation cystoplasty.
 
The patient received a cadaveric renal graft from a 14-year-old donor. The operation was uneventful and he was no longer dialysis-dependent. At 8 weeks after transplantation, his creatinine level was 124 μmol/L (eGFR 63 mL/min/1.73 m2), and urine output about 2000 mL per day. At 12 weeks after the transplantation, his creatinine level was 122 μmol/L (eGFR 65 mL/min/1.73 m2), and urine output remained stable at about 2000 mL per day. Daytime frequency ranged from once every 1 to 3 hours, with 100 to 300 mL of urine per void. At 22 weeks after transplantation his creatinine level was 117 μmol/L (eGFR 68 mL/min/1.73 m2). Ultrasonography excluded graft kidney hydronephrosis and hydroureter.
 
Discussion
This is the first reported case of ketamine-associated nephropathy successfully treated with renal transplantation.
 
Ketamine cystitis was first reported in Hong Kong by Chu et al1 in 2007. Since then, numerous publications regarding its management have emerged. Abstinence remains the cornerstone of treatment as it results not only in improved cystitis symptoms, but also bladder capacity and compliance.2 3 Early upper tract protection is paramount in patients with ketamine cystitis. Up to 16.8% of chronic ketamine abusers have unilateral or bilateral hydronephrosis owing to ureteric strictures or vesico-ureteric reflux.4 Strategies to protect the upper tract include percutaneous nephrostomy or long-term urethral catheterisation to keep the bladder decompressed.5 Internal ureteric stents may aggravate cystitis symptoms and hence may not be tolerated.6 In our case, the patient refused percutaneous nephrostomies for upper tract protection, and missed the window of opportunity to preserve his renal function before development of end-stage renal failure and need for dialysis.
 
There are two important prerequisites for renal transplantation in ketamine-related end-stage renal failure. The first is abstinence to ensure that the graft kidney and ureter are not subject to ketamine toxicity. Significant improvements in bladder compliance and capacity may be achieved only after at least 1 year of abstinence.1 3 7 Since improvement may take several years to stabilise, we suggest that consideration for transplantation should be at least 1 year after stabilisation of bladder function improvement and proven by serial negative urine toxicology screening. The second prerequisite is that bladder compliance and capacity are sufficient to accommodate the volume of urine produced by the graft kidney. A well-functioning graft kidney with a poorly compliant bladder can be damaged by vesico-ureteric reflux. Serial urodynamic studies to document improvements in bladder capacity before considering renal transplantation are mandatory. Although there is no absolute cut-off value for satisfactory bladder volume before transplantation, persistent vesico-ureteric reflux that does not resolve or downgrade with ketamine abstinence would be an indication for augmentation cystoplasty prior to transplantation. This will avoid debilitating urinary frequency after transplantation or early graft failure due to vesico-ureteric reflux. In our patient, bladder compliance and capacity improved steadily with prolonged abstinence, as documented by serial cystometrograms. Renal transplantation without augmentation cystoplasty was therefore an option. Patients with unsatisfactory bladder compliance and capacity should be counselled for augmentation cystoplasty before undergoing transplantation. This concept can be likened to the use of augmentation cystoplasty prior to renal transplantation in patients with high-pressure neurogenic bladder.8 Nonetheless augmentation cystoplasty for patients with ketamine cystitis is technically challenging owing to the fibrotic bladder with transmural thickening. Furthermore, the need for clean intermittent self-catheterisation afterwards may be cumbersome for this young patient group, especially if substantial ketamine-related bladder pain remains.
 
Frequent follow-up after transplantation to monitor renal function, functional bladder capacity in the form of a bladder diary, and ultrasonography to exclude graft hydronephrosis should be maintained. A video cystometrogram to exclude vesico-ureteric reflux is mandatory should graft function deteriorate.
 
Early and sustained abstinence as well as advocation for early upper tract urinary diversion are important factors in the prevention of ketamine-related nephropathy. Clinicians should maintain a low threshold of suspicion for ketamine abuse in young patients who present with recurrent lower urinary tract symptoms.9 A population-based survey of lower urinary tract symptoms in Hong Kong adolescents revealed that of those who reported lower urinary tract symptoms, 6.6% were substance abusers.10
 
Management of the symptoms of ketamine cystitis should adopt a stepwise approach starting with abstinence and analgesics; failing that, intravesical instillation of hyaluronic acid, hydrodistension, and eventually augmentation cystoplasty.3
 
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the concept or design of the study, acquisition of the data, analysis or interpretation of the data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and provided informed consent for the treatment/ procedures and consent for publication.
 
References
1. Chu PS, Kwok SC, Lam KM, et al. ‘Street ketamine’–associated bladder dysfunction: a report of ten cases. Hong Kong Med J 2007;13:311-3.
2. Cheung RY, Chan SS, Lee JH, Pang AW, Choy KW, Chung TK. Urinary symptoms and impaired quality of life in female ketamine users: persistence after cessation of use. Hong Kong Med J 2011;17:267-73.
3. Hong YL, Yee CH, Tam YH, Wong JH, Lai PT, Ng CF. Management of complications of ketamine abuse: 10 years’ experience in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Med J 2018;24:175-81. Crossref
4. Yee CH, Teoh JY, Lai PT, et al. The risk of upper urinary tract involvement in patients with ketamine-associated uropathy. Int Neurourol J 2017;21:128-32. Crossref
5. Chu P, Ma WK, Wong S, et al. The destruction of the lower urinary tract by ketamine abuse: a new syndrome? BJU Int 2008;102:1616-22. Crossref
6. Tsai YC, Kuo HC. Ketamine cystitis: Its urological impact and management. Urol Sci 2015;26:153-7. Crossref
7. Yee CH, Lai PT, Lee WM, Tam YH, Ng CF. Clinical outcome of a prospective case series of patients with ketamine cystitis who underwent standardized treatment protocol. Urology 2015;86:236-43. Crossref
8. Basiri A, Otookesh H, Hosseini R, Moghaddam SM. Kidney transplantation before or after augmentation cystoplasty in children with high-pressure neurogenic bladder. BJU Int 2009;103:86-8. Crossref
9. Ng SH, Tse ML, Ng HW, Lau FL. Emergency department presentation of ketamine abusers in Hong Kong: a review of 233 cases. Hong Kong Med J 2010;16:6-11.
10. Tam YH, Ng CF, Wong YS, et al. Population-based survey of the prevalence of lower urinary tract symptoms in adolescents with and without psychotropic substance abuse. Hong Kong Med J 2016;22:454-63. Crossref

Q Fever spondylodiscitis in the presence of endovascular infections: a case report

© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Q Fever spondylodiscitis in the presence of endovascular infections: a case report
Austin SL Lim, MD, DPBO; Azizul AB Sali, MD, MMed; Jason PY Cheung, MS, MD
Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Prof Jason PY Cheung (cheungjp@hku.hk)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
In areas endemic for tuberculosis infections, the presence of infection on imaging and granulomatous inflammation on histology is often sufficient to start antituberculous pharmacotherapy. However, this may not be appropriate in cases of non-tuberculous granulomatous infection. Rarer causes of spinal infection should be considered, especially if the clinical response is suboptimal. We present an unusual case of granulomatous spinal infection caused by Coxiella burnetii.
 
A 74-year-old man from southern China with no travel history presented with a 3-month history of low back pain in the absence of neurological deficit or constitutional symptoms. Co-morbidities included hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and hyperlipidaemia. There were no symptoms or signs of endocarditis. Initial plain radiographs showed lytic destruction of L4 and erosion of the L4-L5 disc space. Laboratory investigations revealed raised C-reactive protein (CRP) of 27.6 g/dL and erythrocyte sedimentation rate of 32 mm/h. Blood culture, Widal test for Salmonella, HIV testing and acid-fast bacilli growth in sputum and blood were all negative. There was no growth of fungus or brucellosis. Magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography (CT) revealed L4/5 spondylodiscitis with psoas and paravertebral abscesses (Fig 1), and a mycotic infrarenal abdominal aortic aneurysm measuring 7.3 × 7.6 × 5.7 cm. He underwent endovascular stenting of the aneurysm. A CT-guided aspiration of the psoas abscess was negative on Ziehl–Neelsen and Grocott staining and tuberculous polymerase chain reaction. Histology confirmed granulomatous inflammation. After discussion with the microbiologist, the patient was prescribed intravenous ceftriaxone 2 g per day and metronidazole 1 g per day but switched to ertapenem 1 g per day due to a poor clinical response. These antibiotics were used as empirical therapy. Symptoms subsided and his CRP normalised to <0.35 g/dL. He was discharged home and prescribed lifelong amoxicillin/clavulanic acid 375 mg 3 times daily, with levofloxacin 500 mg once daily for the mycotic aneurysm.
 

Figure 1. A 74-year-old man with a 3-month history of low back pain. (a) Initial sagittal computed tomography scan showed L4 bony destruction. (b) Axial contrast computed tomography scan showed a mycotic aneurysm with extension to the L4/5 disc space and right psoas muscle. (c) Sagittal T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging showed L4/5 spondylodiscitis. (d) Axial contrast magnetic resonance imaging showed right psoas inflammatory changes
 
At 6 months after discharge he presented with recurrent back pain along with radicular symptoms. Inflammatory markers were elevated with CRP 3.5 g/dL and erythrocyte sedimentation rate 81 mm/h. The same cultures and serology were negative. Plain radiographs and CT showed increased bony destruction of L4. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed persistent retroperitoneal abscess with progressive spondylodiscitis (Fig 2). A CT-guided drainage of his right psoas abscess yielded negative culture results. Due to the neurological deterioration, an L3-L5 laminectomy with posterior instrumented spinal fusion was performed. Anterior column reconstruction was attempted by the vascular surgeon but scarring prevented safe access to the spinal column without aneurysmal injury. The L4-L5 disc material revealed granulomatous inflammation and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. He was treated as co-infection with tuberculosis and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and was given isoniazid 300 mg, rifampicin 450 mg, and ethambutol 800 mg once daily, and linezolid 600 mg every 12 hours. His inflammatory markers normalised but back pain persisted.
 

Figure 2. Same patient after failed pharmacotherapy for 6 months. (a) Sagittal computed tomography scan showed further L4 bony destruction. (b) Contrast axial computed tomography scan showed more extensive abscess formation around the aorta and the right psoas. (c) Sagittal contrast T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging showed more extensive infection involving L3 as well. (d) Axial scan showed the infection spread to the left psoas and causing spinal stenosis
 
Serial radiographs showed implant failure with further destruction of L4 (Fig 3) due to the lack of anterior column support. Revision posterior instrumented fusion was performed 3 months after the initial surgery from T10 to the pelvis with cement augmentation after removal of the loosened L3-L5 implants. Intra-operative findings were friable tissue and osteoporotic bone. Histology still showed granulomatous inflammation but other cultures were negative. Due to the persistent infection with negative cultures, serology for C burnetii was performed and revealed increased phase I and phase II polyvalent antibodies with titre results of 3200 for both. The patient was diagnosed with chronic Q fever and was given lifelong hydroxychloroquine sulphate 200 mg every 8 hours and doxycycline hyclate 100 mg every 12 hours owing to the presence of the endovascular stent and spinal instrumentation. Serial monitoring of Q fever serology was performed every 6 months. At 2 years after surgery, he remains symptom free with no implant loosening.
 

Figure 3. Same patient after L3-L5 laminectomy with posterior instrumented spinal fusion. Serial plain lateral radiographs (a) immediately after surgery, (b) 1 month after surgery showing progressive L4 collapse and gradual loosening of the screws, (c) 2 months after surgery, (d) 2.5 months after surgery showing kyphosis and screw cut-out, and (e) 3 months after surgery showing complete L4 collapse and construct failure. Revision surgery was performed with stable construct at 2 years after surgery as seen on the (f) standing anteroposterior radiograph and (g) standing lateral radiograph
 
Discussion
First described in 1937, Q fever is caused by C burnetii and can be found worldwide with an overall prevalence of 10%.1 2 Inoculation is through direct contact, ingestion or inhalation of contaminated materials. Traditionally it is thought that contact with cows, goats, sheep or cats causes this disease, but it is not always the case. In chronic Q fever, endocarditis is the most common presentation, seen in 60% to 70% of cases. Other manifestations include hepatitis, pericarditis, myocarditis, vascular infections, and osteoarticular infection.3 Diagnosis is usually by serological testing but can also be on smears or frozen tissue with Giemsa staining that reveals doughnut granulomas. Although serology shows only indirect evidence of infection, it is a simpler and reliable technique. In acute Q fever, testing is performed for antibodies against phase II antigens. In chronic Q fever, testing is for antibodies against phase I antigens. Diagnosis is confirmed if immunoglobulin G titre exceeds 1/800. Cultures are not commonly performed due to its high infectivity and is not available in our laboratory.
 
Osteoarticular Q fever infections are rare. One study from France showed that only 7.3% of all their patients with Q fever manifested with osteoarticular infection.4 The most common form of Q fever osteoarticular infection is chronic osteomyelitis. This is usually a result of contamination from a previous open fracture or prosthetic joints and vascular grafts.4 Adults usually present with an infected prosthetic joint and children with multifocal osteomyelitis.1
 
A review of this case revealed that the patient had previously travelled to Guangdong province in China and had contact with farm animals. This was the only potential source of infection from his history. A high index of suspicion is needed for diagnosis, as seen in this case, because a delay in treatment can lead to multiple surgeries. Despite being in an endemic area for spinal tuberculosis,5 other rarer causes of spondylodiscitis with granulomatous inflammation must be considered. These include other bacteria such as Brucellosis, melioidosis, actinomycosis, and Bartonella infections. Spirochetes, fungi, toxoplasmosis, and viruses such as infectious mononucleosis, cytomegalovirus, measles, and mumps are also potential causes. The presence of endovascular infection with spondylodiscitis with granulomatous inflammation and negative cultures should raise the alarm for potential Q fever. Patients are commonly misdiagnosed and treated with prolonged antimicrobials and surgery without improvement.
 
Author contributions
Concept or design: JPY Cheung.
Acquisition of data: All authors.
Analysis or interpretation of data: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: All authors.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: JPY Cheung.
 
All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
As an editor of the journal, JPY Cheung was not involved in the peer review process. Other authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and provided informed consent for all treatments and procedures and consent for publication.
 
References
1. El-Mahallawy HS, Lu G, Kelly P, et al. Q fever in China: a systematic review, 1989-2013. Epidemiol Infect 2015;143:673-81. Crossref
2. Fantoni M, Trecarichi EM, Rossi B, et al. Epidemiological and clinical features of pyogenic spondylodiscitis. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2012;16 Suppl 2:2-7.
3. Landais C, Fenollar F, Constantin A, et al. Q fever osteoarticular infection: four new cases and a review of the literature. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2007;26:341-7. Crossref
4. Melenotte C, Protopopescu C, Million M, et al. Clinical features and complications of Coxiella burnetii infections from the French National Reference Center for Q fever. JAMA Netw Open 2018;1:e181580. Crossref
5. Chan-Yeung M, Noertjojo K, Tan J, Chan SL, Tam CM. Tuberculosis in the elderly in Hong Kong. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2002;6:771-9.

Herpes zoster radiculopathy as a rare cause of foot drop: a case report

© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Herpes zoster radiculopathy as a rare cause of foot drop: a case report
Gene Leung, MB, ChB, MRCSEd
Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Pamela Youde Nethersole Eastern Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr Gene Leung (geneleung@gmail.com)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
A 69-year-old woman with a medical history of hypertension and hyperlipidaemia presented to the Medicine and Geriatrics unit of Pamela Youde Nethersole Eastern Hospital with acute onset of right leg rash for 5 days. The rash was associated with burning pain and dysesthesia along the right leg. There was no back pain and no history of back injury. She was initially diagnosed with a herpes zoster infection and treated with a course of acyclovir and amitriptyline and then discharged home. The patient presented again 10 days later for new-onset right big toe weakness with right foot drop. On the second admission, an orthopaedic consultation was sought.
 
Physical examination revealed a cutaneous papulovesicular rash and vesicles along the lateral aspect of her right leg down to the dorsum of her right foot (Fig 1). The rash corresponded to an L5 dermatomal distribution. Testing of sensation showed hyperesthesia along the same region. Right hip abduction (gluteus medius) power was Medical Research Council (MRC) grade 4. Right hip flexion (iliopsoas), right hip extension (gluteus maximus), right knee flexion (hamstrings), right knee extension (quadriceps) and right ankle plantar flexion (gastrocnemius) demonstrated full power of MRC grade 5. She had right foot drop with right ankle dorsiflexion (tibialis anterior tendon), MRC grade 2. Right big toe dorsiflexion (extensor hallucis longus) showed a power of MRC grade 1. Right big toe plantar flexion (flexor hallucis longus) tested MRC grade 4 power. Right ankle inversion (tibialis posterior) and right ankle eversion (peronei) elicited MRC grade 3 power. Lasègue’s sign was positive for the right lower limb but there was no tenderness along the spine. There were no neurological deficits of her left lower limb. Achilles tendon and patellar tendon reflexes were normal, and sphincter function was not disturbed.
 

Figure 1. A 69-year-old woman with acute-onset right leg rash for 5 days, initially diagnosed as herpes zoster infection. The patient presented to the hospital again 10 days later with right foot drop. Clinical photographs of the right leg on the second admission showing a vesicular rash with right L5 dermatomal distribution
 
Plain radiographs of the lumbosacral spine showed mild degeneration over the lower lumbar facet joints. The pedicles and endplates were intact with no vertebral collapse or slippage. The patient was referred for magnetic resonance imaging of the lumbosacral spine to exclude concomitant compression of the neurological elements (Fig 2). There was no intervertebral disc prolapse or nerve root impingement and lateral recess and intervertebral foramen were not stenotic.
 

Figure 2. Same patient. (a) Sagittal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the lumbar spine in T2, and axial MRI of the lumbar spine at intervertebral levels (b) L4/5 and (c) L5/S1 show no significant disc prolapse, no spinal canal stenosis, and no foraminal or lateral recess stenosis
 
Pain medication was stepped up to gabapentin. She was discharged with a course of out-patient physiotherapy.
 
At 6-week follow-up examination, the vesicles had crusted, and the neuropathic pain had subsided. The power of right sided hip abduction, big toe plantar flexion, ankle plantarflexion, ankle inversion and ankle eversion now returned to full. There was residual weakness in right ankle dorsiflexion, with a power of MRC grade 4, and right big toe dorsiflexion, with a power of MRC grade 2.
 
At 3-month follow-up examination, the rashes over the right leg and foot had disappeared, leaving faint pigmentation (Fig 3). She was pain free. Right ankle dorsiflexion power was full and right big toe dorsiflexion power further improved to MRC grade 3. She was weaned off gabapentin and continued with physiotherapy for ankle strengthening exercises.
 

Figure 3. Same patient. Clinical photographs of the right leg at 3-month out-patient follow-up examination showing resolution of the rash with residual subtle pigmentation
 
Discussion
Herpes zoster is a viral infection of the nervous system that results from the reactivation of a previous varicella zoster virus infection, often in childhood. The virus lays dormant in the dorsal root ganglion re-emerging as the patient ages or becomes immunocompromised.1 It manifests with a typical cutaneous vesicular rash that follows a spinal nerve distribution. Classically, it is believed that the virus spreads from the dorsal root ganglion in an antegrade fashion along the spinal nerve. Thus, symptoms are most often purely sensory. Rarely, when motor manifestations are present, they tend to affect more proximal muscle groups.2 The typical example is Bell’s palsy due to facial nerve involvement. It has been hypothesised that local inflammation of the dorsal root ganglion results in hypervascularity in the surrounding nerve tissue, disrupting the blood-nerve barrier which can also result in a motor deficit.3 Therefore, although post-herpetic neuralgia is a common manifestation of herpes zoster infection, segmental zoster paresis is rare. Although reported incidences in different countries vary, a recent study performed with a majority of Chinese patients reported paresis in only 0.57% of those afflicted with a zoster infection.2 Since lumbar radiculopathy resulting from intervertebral disc herniation with nerve root irrigation commonly involves L4/5 and L5/S1 levels, a herpes zoster infection with segmental paresis affecting the L5 spinal nerve is a close mimicker. In some instances, the motor weakness can precede the rash.4
 
The diagnosis of herpes zoster radiculopathy is clinical although it can be aided by serum antibodies, electrodiagnostic studies and formal dermatological assessment. For this case, although electrodiagnostic testing would have been ideal to supplement the overall assessment, it was not arranged due to the anticipated recovery and resource limitations in the public hospital setting. As the lumbar spinal nerve roots were involved, the clinical presentation resembled compressive pathologies that are commonly seen in orthopaedics. A plain magnetic resonance imaging can exclude the presence of nerve root impingement, although findings that may suggest zoster infection such as spinal nerve swelling with T2 hyperintensity are neither sensitive nor specific.3
 
The mainstay of treatment for zoster radiculopathy is pharmacological. A course of antivirals is prescribed for the acute herpetic infection. Pain is managed according to the World Health Organization analgesic ladder or with specific neuropathic pain medication such as amitriptyline, gabapentin or pregabalin. Although the clinical course is variable, most patients can expect to make a near-complete motor recovery within 1 year.2 A well-fitted ankle-foot orthosis facilitates ambulation if there is persistent foot drop. In addition, transforaminal epidural steroid injections have been reported to mitigate pain and weakness by suppressing inflammation along the spinal root.5 However, the use of corticosteroids remains controversial as there is a theoretical risk of viral reactivation.3
 
Author contributions
The author contributed to the concept of the study, acquisition and analysis of data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision for important intellectual content. The author had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and takes responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
The author has disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided informed consent for all procedures.
 
References
1. Hope-Simpson RE. The nature of herpes zoster: a long-term study and a new hypothesis. Proc R Soc Med 1965;58:9-20. Crossref
2. Liu Y, Wu BY, Ma ZS, et al. A retrospective case series of segmental zoster paresis of limbs: clinical, electrophysiological and imaging characteristics. BMC Neurol 2018;18:121. Crossref
3. Hackenberg RK, von den Driesch A, König DP. Lower back pain with sciatic disorder following L5 dermatome caused by herpes zoster infection. Orthop Rev (Pavia) 2015;7:6046. Crossref
4. Teo HK, Chawla M, Kaushik M. A rare complication of herpes zoster: segmental zoster paresis. Case Rep Med. 2016;2016:7827140. Crossref
5. Conliffe TD, Dholakia M, Broyer Z. Herpes zoster radiculopathy treated with fluoroscopically-guided selective nerve root injection. Pain Physician 2009;12:851-3. Crossref

Self-inserted foreign bodies during COVID-19: two case reports

Hong Kong Med J 2021 Apr;27(2):142–4  |  Epub 7 Apr 2021
© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Self-inserted foreign bodies during COVID-19: two case reports
Adrian CH Fung, MB, BS, MRCS; Bess SY Tsui, MB, ChB, FRCS; Sammi YS Wong, MB, ChB, FRCS; YH Tam, MB, ChB, FRCS
Department of Surgery, Princes of Wales Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr Adrian CH Fung (fungchiheng@gmail.com)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case reports
Patient 1
In June 2020, a 12-year-old boy presented to the emergency department with a 1-day history of retained electrical wire in the urethra. The electrical wire had been self-inserted into the urethra in an attempt to relieve “urethral itchiness”. He reported pain and gross haematuria as a result of this insertion. He and his mother had been unable to remove the wire. Upon admission, physical examination and plain abdominal radiograph revealed a tangle of electrical wire at the penile urethra with 20 cm of wire protruding externally via the urethral meatus (Fig 1a). Removal of the foreign body with 2% xylocaine gel was attempted but failed so emergency surgery was arranged. Despite general anaesthesia, the tangled electrical wire could not be removed by applying traction to the external end. Surgical removal through urethrotomy at the mid-penile urethra was performed (Fig 1b). The wire was fragmented and retrieved completely, and the penile urethra was reconstructed with urethroplasty (Fig 1c).
 

Figure 1. (a) A 12-year-old boy presented with a retained electrical wire in the urethra. Radiograph showing a tangle of electrical wire in the penile urethra protruding externally via the tip of the penis. (b) Intra-operative photograph showing retrieval of the tangled electrical wire via urethrotomy. (c) Intra-operative photograph showing the removed electrical wire and urethroplasty in progress
 
Upon further discussion with the patient’s mother, she revealed that the patient had been having difficulty settling into school and adapting to everyday life following their recent immigration from Taiwan. With school suspended during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the patient was often left alone at home, worsening his emotional health. His mother volunteered that he had no history of insertion of foreign body.
 
He was assessed by the clinical psychologist who diagnosed limited problem-solving skills and autistic features with a strong interest in using electrical wire. Additional parental support was advised and regular follow-up with the clinical psychologist was arranged. The patient was discharged 2 days after his operation with an indwelling urinary catheter in place for 2 weeks.
 
Patient 2
In May 2020, a 15-year-old boy was admitted with a 1-day history of a retained plastic bottle in his rectum. He reported recent onset of constipation and had inserted a plastic shampoo container per rectum in the hope of inducing a bowel motion. The patient claimed that the idea for this “regimen” was derived from an internet search for a remedy for constipation while school was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. He had no abdominal pain, per rectal bleeding or fever. Physical examination revealed a soft non-distended abdomen. No mass or foreign body was initially felt per rectum. Plain abdominal radiograph revealed the contour of the plastic shampoo bottle in the region of the transverse colon (Fig 2). He was observed overnight in our surgical ward and repeated per rectal examination the next morning found that the plastic bottle was just palpable with a fingertip. The patient subsequently had a bowel motion with passage of the bottle. He was given advice about diet and the correct use of laxatives for constipation prior to discharge on the same day. His parents were interviewed and advised to pay more attention to their son’s behaviour at home.
 

Figure 2. A 15-year-old boy with a retained plastic bottle in the rectum. Radiograph showing the contour of the plastic shampoo bottle (arrows) in the transverse colon region
 
Discussion
Self-insertion of a foreign body into a body orifice is uncommon in children and adolescents.1 Urethral foreign body is even rarer. Motives for teenage intentional foreign body insertion include risk-taking, attention-seeking, sexual gratification, self-injurious behaviour, psychiatric disorder, and self-treatment.2 A wide variety of foreign bodies have been reported in the literature, including needles, safety pins, pencils, ball point pens, wire-like objects (telephone cables, feeding tubes, straws, rubber tubing), toothbrushes, household batteries, and nail scissors.1 In our patients, electrical wire and a plastic bottle were self-inserted in the urethra and rectum, respectively. Patients with urethral foreign body may present with lower urinary tract symptoms including dysuria, haematuria, urethral discharge, and swelling of the external genitalia. Most patients with self-insertion of a foreign body, because of embarrassment, seek medical attention only after the occurrence of complications such as intestinal obstruction, perforation, genital tract infection, or abscess formation.3 Diagnosis can be made in most cases following a comprehensive history taking and physical examination. Radiological evaluation of foreign body with plain radiograph to determine size and number of foreign bodies and their anatomical relationship with surrounding structures usually suffices. Nonetheless ultrasound and computed tomography occasionally may be necessary in selected difficult cases for surgical planning.1 3 Endoscopy (eg, cystoscopy or sigmoidoscopy) is considered the first-line option for confirming and removing the foreign body. Open surgery (eg, laparotomy, urethrotomy, or suprapubic cystotomy) has been described for large foreign bodies or when endoscopic removal is deemed impossible.1 2 3 In our first patient, cystoscopic removal was deemed impossible due to tangling of the electrical wire in the penile urethra; therefore, urethrotomy followed by urethroplasty was necessary to fragment and untangle the wire and achieve complete removal. In addition to removal of the foreign body, this group of teenage patients should be advised to obtain proper psychiatric assessment or psychological support as many of them may have mental health issues.1 2
 
The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the mental well-being of children and adolescents as a result of strict public health measures. In Hong Kong, the Education Bureau ordered classes at all kindergartens and primary and secondary schools to close from February 2019 until mid-June. Prevention and Control of Disease Regulation (Cap. 599G) was enforced to restrict the number of persons in group gatherings in public places to maintain social distancing. In mainland China, >20% of college students reported mild to severe anxiety as a result of isolation measures and school suspensions in the midst of the pandemic.4 Lack of contact with peers, reduced opportunities for stress modulation, increased domestic violence, and child maltreatment have been reported as additional threats to the mental health of children and adolescents. These threats have more impact on those already disadvantaged, such as those with physical disabilities, mental health illness, migrant background, or low socio-economic status.5 Our centre observed an increase in foreign body-related conditions during this period, with unusual foreign bodies found at unusual sites. Both patients reported herein were emotionally and socially affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The mental well-being of children and adolescents should be monitored and supported, and these mental health challenges should be addressed with collaboration among the government, schools, parents, and healthcare professionals.
 
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the concept or design of the study, acquisition of the data, analysis or interpretation of the data, drafting of the manuscript, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
All authors have disclosed no conflicts of interest.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patients were treated in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. Verbal patient consent was obtained.
 
References
1. Prasad Ray R, Ghosh B, Pal DK. Urethral foreign body in an adolescent boy: report of two rare cases and review of literature. Int J Adolesc Med Health 2015;27:463-5. Crossref
2. Unruh BT, Nejad SH, Stern TW, Stern TA. Insertion of foreign bodies (polyembolokoilamania): underpinnings and management strategies. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord 2012;14:PCC.11f01192. Crossref
3. Ceran C, Uguralp S. Self-inflicted urethrovesical foreign bodies in children. Case Rep Urol 2012;2012:134358. Crossref
4. Cao W, Fang Z, Hou G, et al. The psychological impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in China. Psychiatry Res 2020;287:112934. Crossref
5. Fegert JM, Vitiello B, Plener PL, Clemens V. Challenges and burden of the Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic for child and adolescent mental health: a narrative review to highlight clinical and research needs in the acute phase and the long return to normality. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 2020;14:20. Crossref

Emergency cricothyroidotomy and conversion tracheostomy in a patient with COVID-19: a case report

Hong Kong Med J 2021 Apr;27(2):140–1  |  Epub 7 Apr 2021
© Hong Kong Academy of Medicine. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
 
CASE REPORT
Emergency cricothyroidotomy and conversion tracheostomy in a patient with COVID-19: a case report
YF Lau, MRCSEd; Fergus KC Wong, FRCSEd (ORL); Peter KC Kwan, FRCSEd (ORL)
Department of Ear, Nose and Throat, Pamela Youde Nethersole Eastern Hospital, Hong Kong
 
Corresponding author: Dr YF Lau (lauyukfai@gmail.com)
 
 Full paper in PDF
 
Case report
In June 2020, a 56-year-old man with ankylosing spondylitis, fixed flexion cervical spine deformity, and restrictive lung disease was admitted to our hospital with symptoms of pneumonia. A diagnosis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was confirmed by positive polymerase chain reaction test results from throat swab and sputum samples. The patient was treated with a triple combination of interferon beta-1b, lopinavir and ritonavir with clofazimine, in accordance with local recommendations.1 The patient developed respiratory failure with upper airway obstruction, requiring endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation. Intubation attempts failed and the patient developed oxygen desaturation. Bedside cricothyroidotomy was performed immediately with a surgical scalpel. A Portex Blue Line size 6.0 cuffed tracheostomy tube (Smiths Medical) was inserted. Full personal protective equipment (PPE), including N95 respirator, water-proof gown, face shield, and goggles, was worn by the resuscitation team during the bedside procedure.
 
On the same day, after the patient’s oxygen saturation stabilised, conversion tracheostomy was performed in a negative pressure operating theatre. Full PPE was worn by the operating team. Because of the patient’s flexed cervical spine deformity, three pillows were needed to support the head. A ‘barrier box’ was set up over the head and neck using two horizontal anaesthetic screen support bars at the cephalic and caudal ends of the surgical field. Sterile clear acrylic (450 mm × 350 mm) was placed on top of the bars, and four Steri-Drape (3M) plastic drapes were attached, one on each side (Fig 1). Local anaesthetic (2% lidocaine with 1:80 000 epinephrine; Xylestesin-A [3M]) was injected around the incision site. Electrocautery was avoided and only cold steel instruments were used for dissection. Haemostasis was achieved by temporary local application of 1:20 000 adrenaline gauze. Before the trachea incision, a muscle relaxant was given and ventilation was stopped. A Portex Blue Line Ultra size 7.5 cuffed tracheostomy tube (Smiths Medical) was inserted and the cuff was inflated. Ventilation resumed only after closed ventilatory circuit was achieved. The cricothyroidotomy tube was then removed and the wound was repaired (Fig 2).
 

Figure 1. Photograph showing a ‘barrier box’ used during conversion tracheostomy on a patient with coronavirus disease 2019. The box, made from sterile clear acrylic and Steri-Drape (3M) plastic drapes, protects the surgical staff from aspirates while allowing clear visibility of the surgical site
 

Figure 2. Photograph of a patient with coronavirus disease 2019 after conversion tracheostomy showing the tracheostomy tube in situ and the closed cricothyroidotomy wound
 
The patient remained stable after the surgical procedures. There were no surgical complications. None of the healthcare workers involved in the cricothyroidotomy or tracheostomy tested positive for COVID-19 within 14 days after the procedures.
 
Discussion
Up to 20% of patients with COVID-19 have severe or critical cases, and a significant proportion required mechanical ventilation.2 Tracheostomy is seldom needed as these critically ill patients either succumb or recover after weeks of mechanical ventilation, without the need for prolonged intubation.3 However, some of these patients may require emergency surgical airway control. Aerosol-generating procedures, including endotracheal intubation, cricothyroidotomy, and tracheostomy, are leading causes of viral transmission and pose a substantial risk of viral infection to the healthcare workers despite appropriate PPE.4
 
In an airway emergency involving a patient with COVID-19, cricothyroidotomy rather than tracheostomy should be done at the bedside if the patient is unfit to be transferred to the operating theatre. Cricothyroidotomy is a simple and quick bedside procedure; however, it still poses an infection risk for healthcare providers. Limiting the number of healthcare personnel involved in the procedure may reduce the risk of transmission. Placing a portable local exhaust ventilation unit next to the patient and pausing ventilation during the incision, until the closed ventilation circuit is formed, can lower the risk further. Scalpel rather than needle cricothyroidotomy is recommended, because jet ventilation is required after needle cricothyroidotomy, increasing the risk of airborne infection. Conversion tracheostomy can be done more safely after airway control, with staff and theatre better prepared.
 
Wei et al5 previously described safety precautions for performing tracheostomy in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome, including using PPE, performing tracheostomy in a negative-pressure room, and completely paralysing the patient during the procedure. We took extra precautions to further minimise the risk of COVID-19 infection to medical staff. First, we used a sterile ‘barrier box’ to minimise aerosol exposure. Second, we used a concentrated local anaesthetic and vasoconstriction to create a bloodless surgical field, lessening the need for aerosol-generating electrocautery. Third, we paused ventilation before trachea incision until the tracheostomy tube was inserted and the closed ventilatory system is formed, to prevent the dissemination of the virus.
 
This case report highlights critical procedural safety precautions during tracheostomy, including the use of a ‘barrier box’, avoidance of electrocautery, and pausing ventilation before incising the trachea, which can minimise infection risks to healthcare workers.
 
Author contributions
Concept or design: All authors.
Acquisition of data: YF Lau.
Analysis or interpretation of data: YF Lau.
Drafting of the manuscript: YF Lau.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: FKC Wong, PKC Kwan.
 
All authors had full access to the data, contributed to the study, approved the final version for publication, and take responsibility for its accuracy and integrity.
 
Conflicts of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
 
Funding/support
This case report received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
 
Ethics approval
The patient was treated in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The patient provided informed consent for all treatments and procedures, and consent for publication.
 
References
1. Hung IF, Lung KC, Tso EY, et al. Triple combination of interferon beta-1b, lopinavir-ritonavir, and ribavirin in the treatment of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19: an open-label, randomised, phase 2 trial. Lancet 2020;395:1695-704. Crossref
2. World Health Organization. Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). 28 Feb 2020. Available from: https://www.who.int/docs/ default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19---final-report-1100hr-28feb2020-11mar-update.pdf. Accessed 7 Jul 2020.
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